The term “government in exile” describes political parties that claim themselves as the legitimate government of an independent, sovereign state but cannot carry out their duties due to instability, conflict, or foreign occupation. The local government is compelled to move to a secure location.
During World War II, the majority of the European governments of the nations under occupation went into exile in London, England. For this reason, London acquired the characterization of “Miniature Europe.” Read on for an overview of all those WWII governments in exile.
1. Free France
Nazi Germany invaded France on May 10, 1940. On June 16, 1940, Marshal Henri Philippe Pétain was appointed prime minister of France. On June 17, he informed Nazi Germany about the French surrender. Paris, as well, fell. Soon thereafter, Marshal Pétain established a German puppet state known as Vichy France. The same day, Charles de Gaulle, who had a minor position in the French government, decided to fight for French independence. He left Paris for London, intending to form the French government in exile.
During this time, de Gaulle had been undersecretary in the French government for only 12 days and was not as prominent on the international stage as Marshal Pétain. De Gaulle named the French government in exile Free France, claiming it to be the one and only legitimate government.
Already on June 18, despite the opposition from Britain’s cabinet, Prime Minister Winston Churchill allowed de Gaulle to deliver a five-minute speech on BBC radio.
“Whatever happens, the flame of the French resistance must not be extinguished and will not be extinguished,” de Gaulle declared, calling for Frenchmen to join the newly established Free French Forces.
The primary goal of the Free French Forces, led by General de Gaulle, was to seize control of the North African territory by fighting both the forces of Vichy France and the Axis powers. In an effort to assert control over the French possessions in central Africa, Asia, and Oceania, Charles de Gaulle founded the French National Committee on October 27, 1940. At first, it was known as the Empire Defense Council.
The French Liberation Army (AFL) was founded on August 1, 1943, when the Army of Africa and the Free French Forces merged. De Gaulle’s government in exile was able to assemble almost 500,000 conscripts in the AFL in only three years. AFL successfully participated in the liberation of Paris in August 1944 and all subsequent Allied war efforts.
Just months before the end of World War II, in June 1944, on the territory of liberated France, de Gaulle proclaimed the establishment of the Provisional Government of the French Republic. This marked the transition of de Gaulle’s government in exile to Free France’s formal authority on French territory. Charles de Gaulle was greeted as a national hero in France for his wartime efforts. On November 13, 1945, the assembly unanimously elected Charles de Gaulle as head of the French government.
2. Polish Government in Exile
The idea of forming the Polish government in exile was born when Nazi Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Soon, on September 17, the Soviet Union’s invasion of Eastern Poland followed. Polish officials initially established a government in exile in Paris, France, in an effort to protect Poland’s integrity and sovereignty.
Władysław Raczkiewicz served as president, while Władysław Sikorski assumed the roles of commander-in-chief and prime minister. The Polish government was compelled to move to London in the wake of the Nazi invasion of France in June 1940, with the primary goal of gaining support and recognition from key players in international affairs.
The Polish armed forces—land, air, and naval—participated extensively in the military activities of Allied forces. Throughout the war years, Polish intelligence operations proved extremely beneficial. Assisting the Allied forces to break the Enigma code, widely utilized by Nazi Germany, proved crucial in learning about Germany’s covert military schemes.
The Polish government in exile also coordinated the Polish resistance movement (Polish Home Army) within the occupied homeland.
The Polish government in exile played a significant role in bringing attention to the horrors of the Holocaust, including the systematic elimination of Jews and the mass murder of several Polish ethnic groups by Nazi Germany in German-occupied Poland. Utilizing the press, mass media, and diplomatic connections, the government released a number of periodicals, including the Polish Fortnightly Review, which provided early and detailed accounts of Auschwitz, a Nazi-established concentration camp in occupied Poland.
The British media, primarily the BBC, assisted the Polish government in exile in distributing these in-depth accounts to the general public. By 1944, the international society was well aware of the mass killing of ethnic minorities in occupied Poland.
The Polish government’s actions in exile were undermined during high-level conferences held in Tehran (December 1943), Yalta (February 1945), and Potsdam (June–July 1945), where the Big Three—US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Soviet Leader Joseph Stalin, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill—discussed the post-war arrangement of the international order.
By the time of the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the Soviet Union had already occupied large parts of Poland. Stalin demanded to install the Soviet-friendly government in Poland, which would discredit the Polish government in exile. Roosevelt and Churchill, aiming to preserve the balance of power against Nazi Germany and Japan, sought to maintain the Soviet engagement in war efforts in Europe and Asia. Thus, they were willing to compromise and make concessions at the expense of smaller nations, such as Poland. Thus, the dreams of Poland becoming an independent and sovereign nation were crushed at the Yalta Conference, where the Soviet Union acquired control over Poland without the Polish government in exile being able to participate in the negotiation processes.
This marked the start of the decline of the activities of the Polish government in exile. Even though it remained in London until the dissolution of the Soviet Union, its function was limited due to a lack of international recognition. After the war, the Polish government in exile tried to keep the idea of an independent, sovereign Poland alive by cooperating with Polish émigré communities in Great Britain, preserving the Polish language and culture within these communities, as well as raising awareness of the Polish history of occupation.
The Polish government in exile was ultimately dissolved in 1990 when the first free elections were held in Poland.
3. Norway’s Government in Exile
Norway had proclaimed its neutrality during World War I and hoped to maintain it during World War II as well. It succeeded until Nazi Germany invaded Norwegian territories on April 9, 1940. Sailing into the Oslofjord port, German cruisers were ordered to capture King Haakon VII, royal family members, and the representatives of the government, hoping for an easy and rapid capitulation.
Despite initial refusal to leave Oslo, on June 7, King Haakon VII and his family, along with Johan Nygaardsvold’s government, fled to London, where they established the Norwegian government in exile at Kingston House North, Princes Gate. In the king’s view, preserving constitutional authority was essential to restoring Norwegian independence and sovereignty.
Like Charles de Gaulle, the leader of Free France, the Norwegian king inspired his country by broadcasting on British BBC radio. On July 8, 1940, King Haakon gave a public address defying Reich Commissioner Josef Terboven’s demands for his abdication to establish a legitimate Nazi administration in occupied Norway. By the end of September, Nazi Germany had given up on the idea of forming a legitimate administration. Rather, they imposed censorship on any expression of support or allegiance to the royal family and outlawed all political organizations except for the Norwegian National Socialist Party.
Throughout the five years of Nazi occupation, the royal family and Johan Nygaardsvold’s government advocated for Norway’s independence by supporting the Home Front, a local resistance movement. On June 20, 1944, Crown Prince Olav was appointed commander of defense, leading the Norwegian armed forces to support the Allies.
On May 8, 1945, Nazi forces withdrew from Norway following Germany’s surrender. On May 30, 1945, Prime Minister Johan Nygaardsvold and his administration returned to Oslo. The royal family arrived on June 7, exactly five years after the beginning of Norway’s occupation.
4. Belgium’s Government in Exile: The Pierlot IV Government
The Nazi invasion of Belgium on May 10, 1940, led to the formation of the Belgian government in exile, initially based in Bordeaux, France. In occupied Belgium, Nazi Germany installed a military administration.
After France fell to Nazi forces in June 1940, the Belgian government, led by Prime Minister Hubert Pierlot, was compelled to flee to London. In October 1940, the prime minister declared his government, widely referred to as the Pierlot IV Government, the only legitimate representative of occupied Belgium.
Not able to function on Belgian territory, it was the government in exile in London that governed the mineral-rich Belgian Congo and from there exported uranium, gold, rubber, and other raw materials. The Allies heavily relied on these resources to support their war efforts. Additionally, the Belgian government in exile was the only exiled government with its national gold reserves also located in London. The resources provided financial independence and flexibility in its actions that the other governments in exile could not afford.
Thus, Pierlot was actively engaged in international cooperation. The Benelux Customs Union was founded on September 5, 1944, by the exiled governments of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. By signing the UN Declaration in January 1942, Belgium gained the right to be admitted into the newly established United Nations.
The Belgian government in exile formed the Belgian Military Camp for Regrouping, which accommodated Belgian migrants and troops rescued from Dunkirk during Operation Dynamo.
On September 6, 1944, the Allied forces liberated Brussels. Just two days later, the Belgian government in exile returned to its country.
5. Dutch Government in Exile: The London Cabinet
On May 10, 1940, Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands. The Dutch government, along with Queen Wilhelmina and her family, fled to London. They arrived on May 13 at Stratton House and formed the Dutch government in exile, widely referred to as the London Cabinet. The Dutch armed forces surrendered to Nazi Germany on May 15, 1940.
Fearing that Nazi Germany would invade Great Britain, Dutch Princess Juliana, the heir to the throne, relocated to Canada.
Inspired by the collaborative government of Vichy France, Prime Minister Dirk Jan de Geer suggested the queen collaborate with Adolf Hitler and return to the Netherlands. The queen resisted. Her strategic calculation was based on the fact that, in the case of collaboration, the Netherlands would be compelled to cede its oil-rich colonies of the Dutch East Indies to the Axis powers (namely Japan), as Vichy France had done in French Indochina. On September 23, 1941, Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy replaced Jan de Geer as the prime minister of the exiled government.
On November 23, 1941, the Dutch government in exile made an agreement with the United States. The United States would control Dutch Guiana (Surinam), with the primary aim of protecting the bauxite mines from Japan. Winston Churchill, mesmerized by the Queen’s dedication and loyalty to the country, described her as “the only man in the Dutch government.”
In September 1944, the Dutch government in exile signed an agreement for a Benelux Customs Union with the Belgian and Luxembourgish governments in exile.
The Dutch government in exile formed a Dutch-led provisional military administration in 1943, also known as Militair Gezag, or Military Authority. When the Allied forces entered the Netherlands in June 1944, Maastricht became the first Dutch city under the Military Authority. The Militair Gezag was dissolved on March 4, 1946, following the end of World War II, and the government returned to the Netherlands.
6. Czechoslovakia’s Government in Exile
The Czechoslovak government-in-exile, also referred to as the Provisional Czechoslovak Government, was established following the Nazi occupation of Sudetenland on March 15, 1938, and the subsequent surrender of the whole country.
On November 15, 1938, the Czechoslovak president, Edvard Beneš, and the government headed by Prime Minister Rudolf Beran arrived first in Paris, then in Angers. Angers, located southwest of Paris, was considered a relatively safer location compared to Paris. Following the Nazi invasion of France, the government in exile moved to London.
Parts of the military forces left in Czechoslovakia were ordered to evacuate to Poland, and later, they relocated to France as part of the agreement reached on October 2, 1939, which approved the reconstitution of the Czechoslovak army on French territory. The First Division of the Czechoslovak Army played a decisive role in the Battle of France.
The government in exile actively supported the local resistance movement, the Central Leadership of Home Resistance, and its military unit, the Nation’s Defense.
In 1939, the Czechoslovakian government in exile became known as the Czech National Liberation Committee. The key objective of the committee was international recognition as the legitimate representative of the country and the annulment of the Munich Agreement. This agreement, signed on September 30, 1938, by Nazi Germany, France, and Italy, formalized the German annexation of the Sudetenland, a region with a predominantly German population.
The government in exile achieved this aim following the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich, a high-ranking Nazi official, in occupied Prague in June 1942. Heydrich’s assassination was orchestrated by Czechoslovak resistance fighters. Nazi Germany responded by severe repressions in occupied Czechoslovakia. The government in exile shed light on Nazi atrocities in their country, contributing to the rise of the international awareness of Czechoslovakia’s plight.
The same year, Edvard Beneš repudiated the Munich Agreement together with Charles de Gaulle and Winston Churchill, earning much-needed legitimacy over the pre-1938 Czechoslovak Republic. The government in exile suggested the deportation of the ethnic Germans from the Sudetenland to Germany and Austria. The final agreement on this issue was reached at the Potsdam Conference held on August 2, 1945.
Planning the future of Czechoslovakia, in December 1943, Beneš sought close cooperation with the Soviet Union. His intentions were based on two key assumptions: first, by forming friendly relations with the Soviet Union, he hoped to avoid future communist coups in Czechoslovakia; secondly, according to his vision, Czechoslovakia had the mission of being “a bridge” between the Soviet Union and Western powers after the war. In December 1943, Beneš visited Moscow and concluded the alliance treaty, in which the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin, recognized the pre-1938 borders of Czechoslovakia in exchange for the communist dominance in Czechoslovakia.
By April 1945, just before the end of World War II, Beneš arrived in Košice in eastern Slovakia. The Soviet Red Army had already liberated it from the Nazi forces. Beneš declared Košice the temporary capital of Czechoslovakia. Beneš announced the formation of a coalition government, with Klement Gottwald, the leader of the Communist Party, serving as prime minister. Edvard Beneš returned to Prague on May 16, 1945, following the end of World War II, and on June 19, 1946, he was reelected as president of Pro-Soviet Czechoslovakia.
7. Luxembourg’s Government in Exile
Nazi Germany invaded the Duchy of Luxembourg on May 10, 1940. The government of Luxembourg, led by Pierre Dupong and the royal family, with Grand Duchess Charlotte, first fled to France, then to Lisbon, and finally settled in London in 1940. The royal family settled in Montréal, Canada.
The government in exile’s key aim was to acquire Luxembourg’s recognition as an equal member of Western society despite its weak military capabilities. In this regard, the government broadcast in occupied Luxembourg in the Luxembourgish language through BBC radio.
Meanwhile, in Luxembourg, Nazi Germany was actively pursuing Germanization policies. The Luxembourg Grey Book was published for English-speaking readers and press representatives. Grand Duchess Charlotte was vocal in Canada and the United States, advocating for an independent Luxembourg. Over time, the royal family became close to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and received multiple invitations to the White House.
By 1944, the government in exile had abandoned its earlier declared neutrality and formed the Luxembourg Battery. It was incorporated into the Piron Brigade of Belgium. Prince Jean, son of the Grand Duchess and future Grand Duke, participated in Irish Guards military operations (for example, the Battle of Caen, the liberation of Brussels, the liberation of Luxembourg, and Operation Market Garden in the Netherlands).
A meeting in London with Grand Duchess Charlotte and the four members of her government. Source: Europe Remembers / Cour grand-ducale
The Nazi occupation provided the Belgian and Luxembourgish governments in exile with new opportunities for cooperation. In an effort to deepen their economic ties, the two nations signed the Benelux Monetary Agreement on October 21, 1943, and the Convention of the Benelux Treaty with the Netherlands on September 5, 1944.
The Allied forces liberated Luxembourg on September 10, 1944. The government-in-exile returned a week later. The royal family and the Grand Duchess arrived in Luxembourg on April 14, 1945.
8. Greece in Exile: The Cairo Government
Nazi Germany embarked on the invasion of Greece in April 1941. Greece’s King George II and his government, headed by newly appointed Prime Minister Emmanouil Tsouderos, were forced to leave mainland Greece for Crete on April 25, 1941. On May 24, they were forced to evacuate to Cairo, Egypt. For this reason, the Greek government in exile is often referred to as the Cairo Government. The Cairo Government remained primarily in Egypt until the end of World War II.
The Greek government in exile experienced numerous diplomatic challenges and internal divisions. Fortunately, Greece’s strong merchant marine fleet provided the government in exile with advantages and political leverage when negotiating with British officials since the Greek fleet proved significant in supplying food and other goods to the British Marines. Tsouderos had several reservations about the territorial expansion of post-war Greece. He clearly outlined to Britain that the Greek government in exile sought “enosis,” meaning reunion with the Greek-speaking population of Cyprus, the Dodecanese islands, southern Albania—or Northern Epirus as the Greek government called it—and Macedonia. According to Greek historian Procopis Papastratis, the territorial expansion plans of the Cairo government were “completely unrealistic.”
By 1943, strong resistance groups had emerged in occupied Greece. Over time, the communist-leaning factions, the National Liberation Front (EAM), and its military wing, the National People’s Liberation Army (ELAS), acquired control over Greece’s vast mountainous territories. Sympathies towards the resistance movements grew among Greek forces in Cairo as well. Tsouderos was eventually forced to resign in 1944.
The Beirut Conference was held on May 17–20, 1944, between the government in exile and the representatives of the key Greek politicians, as well as the resistance groups, including EAM. According to the conference, a referendum would be held in post-war Greece regarding the king’s return. Guerrillas would accept the authority of the government-in-exile, and the resistance groups would be given a political voice in the Greek cabinet.
On October 17, 1944, Nazi Germany withdrew from Greece. The government in exile returned home, accompanied by British forces.
9. Yugoslavia’s Government in Exile
Nazi Germany, along with other Axis forces (Italian, Bulgarian, and Hungarian), invaded Yugoslavia on April 6, 1941. The capital city of Belgrade fell on April 12, 1941. In just two days, Yugoslavia’s King Peter II and the government, headed by Dušan Simović, went into exile. The government-in-exile’s road before settling in London in June 1941 was long, encompassing Greece, Palestine, Cairo, and Egypt. King Peter II, an 18-year-old monarch, was greeted with honor in Britain, symbolizing the struggle and freedom of rapidly destabilized Yugoslavia.
In occupied Yugoslavia, an armed resistance movement emerged almost simultaneously with the Nazi occupation. The most well-known and influential group was the Chetniks, headed by Draža Mihailović, composed of the remnants of the official Yugoslav army. The Chetniks supported the integration of Yugoslavia with the Western Allies against communism. The Communist partisans, led by Josip Broz Tito, envisioned the reunification of war-torn Yugoslavia in the form of a socialist state.
In the struggle for power, Tito prevailed and became the dominant force in resistance movements. In 1942, he declared the establishment of the provisional government of Yugoslavia, the National Liberation Movement (NLM).
Planning for Yugoslavia’s post-World War II future, the government in exile, led by recently appointed President Ivan Šubašić, reached a deal with the temporary government on June 16, 1944, acknowledging Tito’s accomplishments and efforts in liberating Yugoslavia. The British government mediated the agreement.
These two sides signed the Belgrade Agreement on November 1, 1944. The agreement stated that members of the government in exile and Tito’s National Liberation Committee of Yugoslavia would form a temporary government. The new government would be tasked with arranging elections for the Constitutional Assembly, which would have the authority to choose Yugoslavia’s future governance.
In a national election held on November 11, 1945, the United National Front (UNF), led by Tito, won. The government in exile of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia dissolved on March 7, 1945, when Tito was elected president of the newly established Democratic Federal Yugoslavia.
