The fighting of the American Civil War ultimately reached nearly every state in the Northern and Southern territories, with key battles fought in places like Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina. While Generals Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant led their respective armies, the generals serving under them directed the numerous battles that comprised the Civil War, which were divided among several “theaters.”
Theaters of the Civil War
Historians and history buffs alike discuss the American Civil War in terms of the Union and Confederate Armies or, more easily, Northern and Southern States. While these terms are not wrong, the war can also be discussed in terms of theaters of battle. There were three recognized theaters of war from 1861-1865:
- Eastern Theater, which included states east of the Appalachian mountains but most notably Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia
- Western Theater, between the Appalachian mountains and the Mississippi River, including Mississippi, Kentucky, Alabama, Tennessee, Georgia, Florida, South Carolina and North Carolina
- Trans-Mississippi Theater, which encompassed western states including Louisiana, Texas, Colorado, Arkansas, Missouri, and New Mexico
Dividing the war into three theaters allows for more precise discussions of the Civil War battles and tactics. Most of the battles took place in the Eastern Theater, followed by the Western Theater and finally the Trans-Mississippi Theater.
Eastern Theater Battles: Virginia
The Eastern Theater of the Civil War—and Virginia in particular—had many of the most important battles of the Civil War, including:
- First Battle of Bull Run
- Second Battle of Bull Run
- Battle of Fredericksburg
- Battle of Chancellorsville
- Battle of the Wilderness
- Battle of Spotsylvania
- Battle at Appomattox Court House
Virginia housed the capital of the Confederacy—Richmond—and had much of the South’s railroads, manufacturing facilities, and mines, leading the Union Army to wage many of its battles in the state. Despite this, the Confederate Army won most of the important battles fought in Virginia. Given the state’s importance to the Confederacy, they fought their hardest during most of these battles.
The ultimate fate of the Confederacy was decided during the key Battle of Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. This was the battle in which the Confederacy surrendered to the Union Army, despite the slew of battles that the Confederacy won in Virginian campaigns.
Eastern Theater Battles: Maryland
The Battle of Antietam was one of the most important battles fought in Maryland. Taking place on September 17, 1862, it was the bloodiest battle to date. It was also the northernmost battle at the time. Though the Confederacy ultimately lost, this battle was significant for two reasons: a change in venue, and a change in strategy, for the Confederate Army.
First, this battle was one of the first times that the Confederate Army pushed into northern territory. Prior to the Battle of Antietam, the Confederacy was fighting a defensive war to protect the Southern states. In the Battle of Antietam, the Confederacy was on the offensive.
Second, this push into Northern territory showed a new strategy by the Confederacy. Though it had fewer men than the Union Army, the Confederacy aimed to lower the Union’s morale with aggressive fighting. Despite these innovations, the Union Army ultimately claimed victory over the Confederate Army.
Eastern Theater Battles: Pennsylvania
There is one battle that is synonymous with not only Pennsylvania during the Civil War but perhaps the whole war: the Battle of Gettysburg.
The Battle of Gettysburg, known as the turning point of the Civil War, was fought from July 1-3, 1863. The Confederate Army, under Robert E. Lee’s watch, attempted to push north to invade the Union but was stopped at Gettysburg in early July. After three days of fighting, the Battle of Gettysburg took its place as the bloodiest battle in the Civil War, with more than 50,000 casualties.
With drastically reduced numbers and morale, Lee ended up retreating south again. Lee did not have the men or the courage to continue fighting on Northern soil. Any hopes of the South becoming its own nation were squashed after the Battle of Gettysburg.
Western Theater Battles: South Carolina
One of the most important battles in this theater was the one that began the Civil War: the Battle of Fort Sumter in South Carolina. The Battle of Fort Sumter started on April 12, 1861, with the bombardment of the Fort Sumter military installation in South Carolina.
The Battle of Fort Sumter fight began because of the South’s displeasure with the election of President Abraham Lincoln. The 16th president of the United States was elected without any electors who represented the South. After two days of fighting, the North agreed to surrender Fort Sumter to the newly formed Confederate States of America, thus giving the South its first win in the war that would last years to come.
Western Theater Battles: Tennessee & Mississippi
The Battle of Shiloh in Tennessee and the Siege of Vicksburg were both Western Theater battles fought in the South. The Battle of Shiloh, which took place in early April 1862, was the Union Army’s attempt to push its way deeper into the South. The win for this battle went to the Union and showed the Confederacy that the American Civil War could not simply be a defensive battle for the Confederacy.
A year later, in May 1863, during the Battle of Vicksburg, the Union Army pushed further south with its aim now on the Mississippi River. The Mississippi River was the Confederacy’s key means of transporting troops up and down the states, and, without it, the Confederate Army would be severely limited. Both Union victories in these southern states pushed the Confederacy further from a win in the Civil War.
Trans-Mississippi Theater
The Trans-Mississippi Theater is often forgotten in Civil War history, though it is relevant nonetheless. In fact, this Theater came to be in 1863 after the Siege of Vicksburg. The Union Army took control of Vicksburg and, as a result, also took control of the Mississippi River. Without control of the River, the South was effectively split into two regions on either side of the Mississippi. This division between the Southern states created yet another arena of fighting for the Civil War.
While battles did take place in this theater, none were as decisive to the outcome of the Civil War as those in the other theaters. However, the introduction of the Trans-Mississippi Theater also created conflict with the Indian Territory in what is today Oklahoma, and battles against the Native Americans added yet another layer to the story of the Civil War.
Generals of the Union Army
Ulysses S. Grant led the efforts of the Union Army, with generals such as George McClellan, William Tecumseh Sherman, Ambrose Burnside, and George Meade serving under him. While Grant was the ultimate authority in the Union Army, it was the generals beneath him who often led the day-to-day battles of the War.
Still, many of the generals serving beneath Grant have claimed their places in history for their successes. William Tecumseh Sherman, for instance, led troops through much of Georgia and the Carolinas. Ambrose Burnside had many triumphs during the Civil War and, afterward, became the governor of Rhode Island. George Meade staked his claim in American history by defeating Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg.
That is not to say that all generals have perfect marks in the history of the Civil War. George McClellan, unlike the other generals in the Union Army, only served through the Battle of Antietam in 1863 when he was relieved from duty because he lacked the courage to fight.
Generals of the Confederate Army
Robert E. Lee was at the helm of the Confederate Army, with a slew of generals reporting directly to him. Like Grant, Lee considered the big-picture tactics during the war but was not at every battle. The men who reported to Lee included Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, J.E.B. Stuart, Nathan Bedford Forrest, and James Longstreet.
Generals like J.E.B. Stuart and Nathan Bedford Forrest were known for their cavalry tactics on horseback, though it is Stuart who is nearly synonymous with the cavalry during the Civil War. James Longstreet had a hand in the Battle of Gettysburg, but he is remembered most for arguing with Lee about the tactics he used at Gettysburg and, ultimately, oversaw the failure of Pickett’s Charge.
Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson is the outlier among Lee’s generals. Jackson died almost halfway through the Civil War after complications from a gunshot wound, but his memory lived on throughout the rest of the War. He was remembered by both soldiers and the public and guided much of the sentiment during the war.
