How to Decode Goryeo Buddhist Paintings in Korean Art

Among Korea’s rarest and most beautiful religious artifacts, the Goryeo Period Buddhist paintings were largely lost due to colonization and war. Retrieved from Japanese temples, their imagery is now interpreted to represent stories of the afterlife. Alongside their religious narratives, Goryeo Buddhist paintings reveal much about society at the time, particularly within the royal court, which invested generously in Korean art and culture. How can we decode their iconography? What does it tell us about religion and society in the Goryeo Period?

Both politically and culturally, Buddhism played a significant role in the Goryeo Period in Korea. During the Silla Period (668-935) preceding Goryeo, Buddhism became the state religion. Like their Silla predecessors, members of the royal court were major patrons of the arts and culture, and the amount of luxury goods in circulation increased. Goryeo rulers spent heavily on Buddhist architecture, investing in art, architecture, rituals, and ceremonies.

The state provided significant support to Buddhist monasteries, which in turn became economic and political centers of power. Alongside Buddhist art, the state also patronized Buddhist architecture. Many temples and pagodas, including two that are now UNESCO World Heritage sites, the magnificent Haeinsa Temple—housing the Tripitaka Koreana collection of about 80,000 woodblock engravings, the most complete collection of Buddhist texts, laws and treaties in existence—and Bulguksa Temple in Jinhyeon-dong. These temples became economic hubs, wherein monks owned land and serfs in the temple’s name. They also acted as educational exchanges, devoted not only to the study of Buddhist principles but also to medicine, literature, and other subjects.

Techniques and Materials 

Mineral pigments were the main materials used to apply color. These pigments were derived from natural resources, such as malachite (green) and cinnabar (red). Emphasizing wealth and luxury, gold leaf was also used for certain embellishments to highlight particular features of the painting like halos or clothing. Layering techniques were used to build color blocks and to make the paintings appear more three-dimensional.

Goryeo Buddhist paintings stand apart from others in the same religious vein due to their emphasis on the main deity and its chakras, over decorative elements. The iconography is heavily based on the Flower Garland Sutra and the Land of Pure Buddhism tradition.

The Flower Garland Sutra, in summary, is a scripture that emphasizes the world’s interconnectedness. It highlights the path of the bodhisattva, an enlightened being seeking to become a Buddha and the importance of enlightenment for all beings. Land of Pure Buddhism focuses on Amitabha Buddha and rebirth into his “Pure Land,” where it is easier to achieve enlightenment. It is still the most popular form of Buddhism practiced in Korea.

Three main figures dominate Goryeo Buddhist paintings: Buddha Amitabha, Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara, and Boddhisatva Ksitigarbha. Buddhas are beings that have achieved enlightenment, while bodhisattvas are still seeking it, and aim to guide others to achieve it.

Buddha Amitabha is believed to have created the Pure Land, a land free from suffering where enlightenment can be achieved. If followers keep faith in his existence and repeatedly say his name, they are guaranteed a place in this paradise. He is keen to hear them and guide them there upon their deaths.

Known as the embodiment of compassion, Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara is merciful and protective. The deity is often depicted with significant objects including a rosary, willow branches, and a kundika, a flask used in Buddhist rituals. Lotus flowers often accompany him, representing spiritual purity and enlightenment. Boddhisatva Ksitigarbha protects the deceased. In paintings, he is shown as a monk holding a staff and a jewel. He seeks to alleviate all suffering, often saving those destined for hell.

Often thought of as the most prominent of the Goryeo paintings, Water-Moon Avalokitesvara depicts Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara in a contemplative pose. He is accompanied by a moon reflected upon the water, hence the name “Water Moon.” He is shown at his residence on Mount Potalaka, which, filled with flowers and flowing water, seems suitably heavenly.

Sudhana is another key figure in the painting, appearing in the bottom right-hand corner. Known particularly for his role in the Buddhist story Journey to the West, Sudhana is a pilgrim who is seeking enlightenment and wisdom. In this painting he holds a pose of adoration, worshipping Avalokitesvara.

Avalokitesvara’s robes are particularly opulent and serve as a reminder of the wealth surrounding Buddhism at this time. A prominent element in Goryeo Buddhist paintings, clothing was painted with a great amount of detail, usually with gold. Artists were able to create semi-transparent veils using washes of pigment. Laden with flower petals, Avalokitesvara’s veil extends from his crown into the pond.

Another key piece of iconography in the paintings are the mudras, or hand positions, of the Buddhist figures. Used in meditation and rituals, they are believed to channel energy in particular ways. They serve as non-verbal modes of communication, making them ideal for Buddhist paintings. In turn, they provide the viewer with a clear indication of the sitter’s intentions. In Amitbhata Triad, for example, Amitbhata Buddha holds his hands in a mudra representing Buddhist law. It specifically connects to India, the birthplace of Buddhism.

All but 30 of the 160 known remaining paintings are in the possession of Japanese collectors. How did they get there? Firstly, peaceful diplomacy and international relations likely resulted in the trading of the paintings. Less honorably, some were likely snatched up by pirates and militant forces throughout history, as Korea has often been subjected to attacks and colonization from Japan.

During the Goryeo Dynasty in Korea, trade with Japan flourished. Aristocrats in Japan recognized the value of these paintings and added them to their collections. During the Japanese occupation of Korea (1910-1945), many paintings were taken to Japan to satisfy continued demand. The preservation and study of Buddhist art in Japan was also common, meaning that they were willing to invest in the preservation of the works.

Despite being considered national treasures, it is challenging to pinpoint how many paintings are in the possession of Korean collectors. There are, however, many held in the collections of Korean museums including the National Museum of Korea which hosts Water Moon Avalokitesvara. Korea has strict laws on the possession of national treasures, meaning many are protected by national institutions.

Restoration and Preservation

Goryeo Buddhist paintings are particularly delicate and thus are easily susceptible to damage. Furthermore, over time artworks can naturally deteriorate, and, being made out of silk, these paintings are particularly at risk.

Preservation techniques include maintaining good climate control and light management, which can cause pigments to quickly fade. They also need to be displayed or stored with the correct mounting and framing. The role of restorers has been to repair tears, clean dirt, and repaint any faded sections.

To preserve the legacy of these works, and to continue to gain funding for their maintenance, scholarship is important. It raises public awareness and increases our knowledge of the context of the works and the techniques used to create them.

Goryeo Buddhist paintings represent the collision between art and religion, tracing human-deity relations through visual culture. They stand as a testament to Korea’s rich cultural heritage, despite the challenges colonization and war posed to their legacy. These works not only present religious narratives but also insights into society during the Goryeo Period in Korea, particularly the patronage of the arts. Characterized by their intricate techniques and symbolic meanings, Goryeo Buddhist paintings are significant cultural objects within Korean art history. They continue to be carefully cared for by collectors, scholars, and institutions alike, ensuring that they remain in the public’s consciousness.