9 Defining Moments in British Medieval Warfare

Interestingly, the medieval period in Britain begins with a battle. In 1066 CE, the Battle of Hastings marked the beginning of Norman rule and a new era in Britain. Medieval warfare in Britain was often used as a tool to help implement feudalism and maintain the centralization of power. The period from 1066 to 1485 CE saw a number of important battles that were instrumental in both political and territorial politics. The Medieval Period in Britain both began and ended with a battle — ending with the Battle of Bosworth Field and the rise of the Tudor Dynasty.

October 14th, 1066 CE, marked the start of Norman rule over England after they ousted the Anglo-Saxons. The Battle of Hastings involved the forces of William, Duke of Normandy, often referred to as William the Conqueror, and the army of Harold Godwinson, the last Anglo-Saxon king of England.

King Edward the Confessor left no clear heir when he died in January of 1066. You will see throughout history that this was a common problem in England. While Harold Godwinson was crowned king, he immediately faced a contesting claim from William of Normandy. William claimed that Edward had promised him the throne as far back as 1051. This dispute set the stage for the subsequent Norman invasion.

The battle took place near the present-day town of Battle, East Sussex. The fighting lasted from morning until dusk. William used innovative tactics, new to the English Saxons, which included feigned retreats that drew out and broke the English shield wall. This tactic has been attributed as the leading factor in the Norman victory. The end of the battle was signaled by Harold’s death. The famous Bayeux Tapestry depicts his death as an arrow to the eye. Despite this artistic representation of events, historians regularly debate the details of his death.

William’s victory fundamentally altered England and its aristocracy. Anglo-Saxon lords were replaced with Norman ones, and a new system of governance was introduced. Norman-French started to replace Old English as William was crowned King of England on Christmas Day 1066.

A battle made famous by Hollywood in the film Braveheart, the Battle of Stirling Bridge was fought on September 11th, 1297 CE. This was one of the largest battles during the First War of Scottish Independence. William Wallace and Andrew Murray led Scottish forces to a decisive victory against English forces led by John de Warrene, the Earl of Surrey, and Hugh de Cressingham.

Edward I of England wanted to assert control over Scotland after the death of the Scottish queen in 1290. The people of Scotland disagreed, and this disagreement culminated in this battle at Stirling Bridge.

The English were at a disadvantage. They were forced to cross a narrow bridge over the River Forth, and the Scots made sure to capitalize on this moment. This narrow path limited how much English troops were able to move. The Scots could then hold back their forces until most of the English had crossed the river. Once they crossed, Wallace and Murray launched a surprise attack and cut off the English access to the bridge. The English were left vulnerable and disorganized, resulting in a Scottish victory.

This victory boosted Scottish morale and cemented Wallace’s reputation as a symbol of the resistance. This eventually made him a great target for the English crown. However, this defeat forced Edward I to reconsider his strategies in Scotland, and Scottish resistance only grew.

3. The Battle of Bannockburn (1314)

The Battle of Bannockburn was fought from June 23rd to 24th, 1314. This battle is another large event during the First War of Scottish Independence against England. While the Battle of Stirling Bridge was a decisive victory, the Battle of Bannockburn finally confirmed Scottish independence and solidified Robert the Bruce’s place as a legendary figure of national pride in Scotland.

By 1314, the tensions between Scotland and England had escalated considerably. Edward II now controlled England and wanted to assert control over Scotland. The siege of Stirling Castle became a focal point of these tensions and set the stage for a great battle. The Scots were led by Robert the Bruce, who aimed to lift the siege and simultaneously assert their independence. They were at a disadvantage, though. They faced an English army that was significantly larger and better equipped than their own.

Yet again, the Scots employed the terrain to their advantage and forced the English into a cramped and marshy battlefield at Bannockburn near Stirling. This tactical advantage hampered the English forces’ movement and effectiveness.

The Scottish forces were organized into schiltrons. This special formation moved infantry into dense groups with outward-facing spears. They were highly effective against cavalry. With these tactical formations and their expert use of the terrain, the Scots could decisively defeat the English.

The victory at Bannockburn ended English claims over Scotland and established Robert the Bruce as the uncontested ruler of an independent Scotland. The legacy of this battle extends beyond the immediate victory. The Battle of Bannockburn became a symbol because of the triumph of a smaller and less equipped force against a larger, well-armed adversary. It is a defining moment in Scottish history.

The Battle of Crécy, on August 26th, 1346, was a rather significant conflict during the Hundred Years’ War. The Hundred Years’ War was a series of conflicts as the English monarchs tried to assert their claims over French territories. In this case, King Edward III of England landed his army in Normandy. From here, he launched a campaign of rapid movement and scorched earth tactics all across northern France. This campaign culminated in the Battle of Crécy at Crécy-en-Ponthieu. It was here that Edward held a strong defensive position against the French army led by King Philip VI.

Edward’s army was very good at using their longbows to their benefit, and the longbowman formed the backbone of his tactical approach. English archers, at this time, were famous. Edward positioned his archers in a place that would capitalize on their long-range and rapid-fire rate. These archers alone were able to devastate French forces.

The French Knights were hampered by muddy terrain. Combine that with the instant disorganization that followed the initial volleys of English arrows, and they were set to fail. The French were never able to break through the English defensive formations. This battle is famous in history for its successful use of the longbow which very easily outperformed the Genoese crossbowmen that the French used.

The English won an overwhelming victory here. That’s not all the Battle of Crécy accomplished though. From this point forward, you can see the decline in the dominance of heavy cavalry in medieval warfare and a move toward the heavy use of infantry, especially those with longbows. Medieval warfare shifted from melee or hand-to-hand combat to a heavier focus on ranged weaponry.

While deeply involved in the Hundred Years’ War, England was also facing the Second War of Scottish Independence. The Battle of Neville’s Cross, fought on October 17, 1346, occurred near Durham, England.

Because of the conflict between England and France in the Hundred Years’ War, France chose to ally with Scotland. Through the Auld Alliance, France encouraged the Scottish King David II to open up a northern front against England. This was less about Scotland and more about France. France wanted English resources diverted to the Scottish border so that they would focus less on the siege of Calais. King Edward III of England anticipated France making a move like this and had already prepared for it by stationing a strong defensive force in northern England.

The Scottish army started by rampaging through Northumberland but was eventually caught by an English force near Durham. The English army was smaller but still held the advantage of higher ground. In the previous Scottish victories against England, it was the Scottish forces that held the higher ground. This switch in circumstances allowed English forces to disintegrate Scottish forces through fierce attacks using English longbowmen.

Not only did England win a conclusive victory, but the Scottish king was captured. Scottish power was weakened, and the English very quickly exploited this. After Neville’s Cross, England gained stronger control over southern Scotland. The capture of the Scottish king also led to major negotiations for his ransom. Paying this ransom put a great strain on the Scottish economy and the defeat crippled Scottish morale.

The Hundred Years’ War was a constant back-and-forth between England and France very typical of medieval warfare. On October 25th, 1415, Henry V of England was campaigning to assert his claim over the French throne and invaded Normandy. However, the English army had been greatly weakened by battle and disease. Henry still decided to push forward and march for Calais, where he was intercepted by a larger French force near Agincourt. The French forces were led by Charles d’Albret, the Constable of France.

This is another one of those moments in history where, despite the French having the numbers, they were ill-suited for this particular battle. Their heavy cavalry and knights could not perform properly on the muddy, enclosed battlefield. This limited their movement and their effectiveness. The English were weakened, but they were able to exploit their longbowmen’s reach and mobility, which meant they could inflict severe losses on the French forces. Henry had his archers flanked by stakes and positioned them to maximize their impact, which played a central role in the English victory.

Agincourt was devastating for the French. They suffered significant losses and that included many of their nobility. So, they not only lost this battle, but it weakened their feudal military structure. For England, once again, they showcased the abilities of their longbowmen in battle and simultaneously boosted national morale. The loss at Agincourt could be directly linked to Henry’s success in France, which led to the Treaty of Troyes recognizing him as heir to the French throne.

The War of the Roses was a continuous, prolonged affair between the houses of York and Lancaster. For years the throne of England was in dispute — the Lancasters and the Yorks were in disagreement over the rightful ruler of England. The Battle of Towton, March 29, 1461, is said to be the largest and deadliest battle ever fought on English ground. The combatants encountered each other in the midst of a vicious snowstorm which added to the battle’s carnage.

Yorkist leader Edward IV confronted the Lancastrians, the loyalists of Henry VI. The Yorks and the Lancastrians were not only at each other’s throats, but all of this was exacerbated by a similar struggle for power among the nobles. The nobles had been agitated by major players like Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (the Kingmaker).

The severe weather conditions did not aid matters, but this battle saw some great tactics employed. The Yorkists came back to the successful deployment of longbowmen. Lord Falkenburg, a Yorkist leader, was a genius. He used the wind and snow of the storm to his advantage. He instructed his archers not to shoot a single arrow until he gave the command; which came, after the Lancastrians had spent the majority of their shots. After a long period of long-range combat, the battle came down to short, fierce hand-to-hand fighting.

The Yorkists achieved a crushing victory, which immediately led to Edward IV’s ascension to the throne. The Lancastrian cause was virtually wiped out, as their leader, Henry VI, went into hiding and they lost many Lancastrian nobles on the field. The actual figures in regard to loss of life in this battle are hotly debated. What historians do agree on is the fact the Battle of Towton took the lives of more Englishmen than any other battle during the War of the Roses and perhaps in all of English history.

In 1428, the English could boast of its alliances with Burgundian troops and they controlled most of northern France including Paris. The city of Orleans represented a vital crossroads leading to the South of France. Since England aimed at conquering the whole of France, the capture of Orleans was strategically essential.

The Earl of Salisbury, later Duke of Suffolk, mobilized his English troops and laid siege to Orleans, the last important stronghold held for Charles VII of France. The English achieved some local successes in taking strategic points but no further offensive was undertaken until the arrival of Joan of Arc.

Joan arrived in April 1429. With her, she brought fresh inspiration with her claims to have had visions from the Saints and she led several assaults against strategic English positions. Her presence was said to revitalize the French forces and led to the end of the siege in May. With Joan as inspiration, they were able to overrun key English fortifications.

Not being able to take Orleans because of Joan’s leadership was a significant blow to English aspirations. It also boosted French morale and started a resurgence of the French forces. After this siege, Joan of Arc rose to a position of considerable influence within French politics and military strategy.

The English, however, became egotistical. The lack of decisive action made them vulnerable in their strategic planning. This vulnerability was very quickly taken advantage of simply by a charismatic leader.

The siege of Orleans lasted almost a year, from October 12, 1428, to May 8, 1429. It was one of the most famous battles of the Hundred Years’ War between France and England.

The Battle of Bosworth Field was the final important engagement of the War of the Roses. It marked a shift in the control of the throne from the House of York to the House of Lancaster. Henry Tudor, who would become Henry VII, ended the reign of Richard III and also effectively concluded the Plantagenet Dynasty’s hold on the English crown after centuries.

Richard III ascended the English throne in 1483 after he declared his nephews illegitimate. This declaration was incredibly controversial and was not universally accepted. These actions only led to more instability and more conflict. The Lancastrians had been incredibly weakened by the Battle of Towton. Henry Tudor rose up as a Lancastrian claimant, but his claim was tenuous. The instability in England after Richard supplanted his nephews’ claim to the throne was more than enough for Henry Tudor to slide into the Lancastrian seat of power.

Henry Tudor landed in Wales in 1485, gathered the forces he needed, and marched to London. His forces were outnumbered, but as we know from other battles, that didn’t necessarily mean he would lose. Henry Tudor was intelligent and strategic.

Richard III either took great courage from the fact that he had greater numbers or was incredibly bold in general. He led a direct charge aiming to kill Henry Tudor himself, effectively ending the civil war once and for all. His charge ultimately failed. Not because of tactical genius on Henry’s part, but because one of Richard’s largest supporters, the Stanleys, declared for Henry mid-battle. Richard was killed in the fray.

With Richard’s death, Henry Tudor ascended the English throne as Henry VII and Henry Tudor was able to unite the warring factions through his marriage to Elizabeth of York. Together they founded the Tudor Dynasty under a combined Lancastrian and York flag. This rise of the Tudor Dynasty and Henry’s marriage is seen as the end of the Medieval Period in England.