The 20th century got on to a rocky start with a slew of wars and revolutions of varying scales. From the Russo-Japanese War to World War I, peace seemed elusive. Mankind would then outdo itself with World War II in 1939, less than 25 years after World War I. Later, Cold War developments resulted in tense geopolitical confrontations such as the Cuban Missile Crisis. As a superpower that emerged in the 20th century, America stood at the forefront of these intense episodes. How did the everyday American navigate these challenges?
1. World War I and the 20th-Century America
On June 28 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the future ruler of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated by a Bosnian-Serb nationalist group desiring to unite territories of ethnic Serbs. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, compelling Russia to get involved as a Serbian ally. One thing soon led to another as numerous world powers intervened to support their respective allies. World War I broke out swiftly, with the Central Powers (primarily Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire) pitting against the Allied Powers (primarily France, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, Japan, and America). By August 1914, a huge part of Europe was at war as the continent descended into sheer chaos.
America Goes to War
Initially neutral, America entered the war in 1917. More than two million American soldiers were drafted to fight at the frontlines across the Atlantic Ocean. Women, too, supported the war effort by filling in essential roles at home and abroad. Some were part of the Ambulance Corps and American Red Cross on the Western Front, while others worked as telephone operators for the Army Signal Corps. Housewives back home were actively taking on jobs in factories that produced weapons, ammunition, and raw materials.
The War That Did Not End All Wars
Ranked among the deadliest military conflicts in history, the impact of World War I was far-reaching. By November 1918, the war had left more than nine million soldiers dead and another 21 million wounded. More than 10 million civilian casualties were reported, and cities turned into ravaged war zones overnight. Massive debts, high unemployment, and inflation woes plagued post-war Europe. Conversely, America, having joined the war late, enjoyed significant economic growth from 1914 to 1918. Its real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) rose by 6.6% every year on average, while its exports soared from US$2.3 billion to US$9.6 billion. This was attributed to its role as a major supplier of weapons, raw materials, and food to the Allies.
From 1917, the government expanded its military expenditure and drafted millions of men, creating jobs and boosting the economy. To finance its war machine, the government sold war bonds that were repaid with interest and regarded as attractive investments for individuals and corporations. Marketed as a way for the ordinary American to contribute to the noble national cause, the sale of war bonds raised US$24 billion. Economically, World War I transformed America from a debtor nation to a creditor, solidifying its vast fiscal might to shape the post-war world order.
American society was profoundly shaped by the wartime experiences. Men fought valiantly at the battlefront, with some returning home bearing lifelong wounds and the heavy burdens of shell shock. Women ventured beyond the domestic sphere to take on jobs traditionally meant for men. This contributed to the dramatic shift in the role of women, intensifying post-war calls for women’s rights. More than 350,000 African American men served in the war, and some saw it as confirmation of their equal citizenship rights in a segregated nation. After the war, the African American community persisted in its fight for equality, most notably from the accelerated momentum of the Great Migration.
2. World War II: War on the Doorstep, Again
Less than 25 years after World War I ended, war came knocking again on 1 September 1939. In the early hours, Germany invaded Poland, sparking World War II as the Allies declared war two days later. Two years later, the Pacific War broke out in December 1941, with the Japanese launching simultaneous attacks on the American territories of Hawaii, Wake Island, Guam, and the Philippines. Thailand, as well as the British colonies of Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong, were not spared either.
America Goes to War, Again
As with its stance in the early years of World War I, America adopted an isolationist policy even after war engulfed Europe in 1939. But on December 7, 1941, the surprise Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii killed 2,400 Americans, sank five out of eight battleships, and destroyed aircraft fields. The U.S. saw this as a deliberate, unprovoked act of aggression, prompting President Franklin D. Roosevelt to declare war on Japan the very next day. Within days, Germany and Italy, as Japan’s allies, declared war on the U.S., drawing the “sleeping giant” into an all-out conflict in both theatres of World War II.
While the U.S. only provided military supplies and escorted Allied convoys prior, it was able to dedicate large numbers of military personnel after 1941. The U.S.-backed Allies gained control over land and sea, leading to a decisive victory in Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Western Europe in 1944. Concurrently, American military and naval strength proved pivotal in significant battles such as the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway. Later, in August 1945, the U.S. controversially dropped two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, hastening Japan’s unconditional surrender and ending World War II.
The Deadliest Military Conflict in History: How It Shaped America
Three months before the Japanese surrender, Victory in Europe Day was celebrated on May 8, 1945, a day after Germany surrendered. While figures vary, an estimated 70 to 85 million people died in World War II, making it the bloodiest military conflict in history. Much of Europe and Asia were in ruins, with civilian populations displaced and left in hunger and poverty. More than 400,000 Americans perished during World War II, and about 670,000 were wounded. However, compared to the other Allied powers, America did not suffer heavy infrastructural damage.
Unlike the devastation in Europe, America’s economy achieved significant growth due to the efficient pivot to wartime production. In 1945, America’s Gross National Product (GNP) rose to US$212 billion, almost double the figures of 1940. The vast economic strength transformed America into a global leader capable of influencing the balance of power in international relations. Together with its military might and demonstrated nuclear capabilities, the U.S. has since dominated world affairs as a champion of democracy and capitalism.
People from all walks of life were galvanized to support the war effort in more ways than one. Whether it be men sent to the battlefield or women taking on factory jobs, the whole-of-nation effort boosted patriotism, redefining what it meant to be American. Defying discrimination, the African American community stepped up to boost the war effort. They took on skilled positions as defense contractors and were forced to end segregation with new hiring policies. Millions of African Americans served in the military forces in the Pacific and Europe. Initially relegated to menial labor positions and non-combat roles, they rose to the occasion and served as pilots and officers when troop losses mounted.
The middle-class experience was forever changed in the post-war years. With the GI Bill, war veterans enjoyed a multitude of benefits, such as specialty care, education, and re-employment training. Favorable home loans helped families start life afresh in furnished homes in the growing suburbs with ample amenities such as schools, parks, and churches. Unemployment rates and inflation were low. Conversely, consumer spending was at an all-time high as Americans splurged on automobiles, televisions, and refrigerators.
3. Cold War: The Heated Superpower Rivalry
With the war in its rearview, the world seemed ready to usher in a new era of prosperity. As the U.S. capitalized on its influence as a global leader, it found itself in a tense relationship with the Soviet Union (USSR), the other surviving superpower. This was known as the Cold War — defined as a period of economic, political, and military tensions between the U.S. and the USSR short of an all-out war. Championing two conflicting ideologies—capitalism and communism—the two superpowers were previously wedded to a wartime alliance to defeat Germany. However, Cold War developments would soon threaten to drive a wedge between the two former allies.
From 1947 to 1991, despite not having an all-out war, the U.S. and the USSR were engaged in conflicts of various scales across the globe. From pitting the Eastern Bloc against the West to the arms race and Space Race that saw defense spending skyrocketing on both sides, the superpowers were relentless in proving that one was better than the other. Simultaneously, they fought proxy wars overseas and participated in conflicts in Korea, Vietnam, and Cuba. The bipolarity and Cold War politics created a fragmented world order and affected regional developments in Europe and Asia, oftentimes escalating violence in many areas.
A Bipolar World Order: How It Shaped America
In the Cold War years, American society was constantly plagued by the fear of a communist takeover, with government propaganda reinforcing this paranoia. Known as the Second Red Scare, it was an era characterized by hysteria about the perceived communist threat. Millions of federal employees were investigated to eliminate any subversive elements thought to have penetrated the government. Alleged communist sympathizers, including celebrities and intellectuals, were harassed by law enforcement, terminated from their jobs, and alienated from their social circles.
While the U.S. government pursued an arms race with the Soviets, the American public lived with the omnipresent threat of nuclear annihilation. Civilians built fallout shelters in their basements and backyards and stocked up on food and necessities to prepare for an impending Soviet nuclear attack. Civil defense drills, quite possibly futile and comical by today’s standards, were also practiced nationwide. Schoolchildren participated in duck and cover drills where they would dive underneath their desks to take cover in the event of an attack.
The Cold War fuelled the counterculture movement in the 1960s and 1970s. A growing disillusion with the government and its morally questionable policies created a generation of people seeking alternatives to the post-war conformist attitudes. Many rejected consumerism and decried the prevailing social and racial injustice. They supported social movements and protests that championed civil rights, feminism, and the welfare of marginalized communities. A common thread binding these individuals was their opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, which ran counter to their peace advocacy.
After another two decades of competition, the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, symbolizing the end of the Cold War. With the USSR’s dissolution by December 1991, the U.S. reigned supreme, flying the flag of the free world proudly. Ever since, communism and all things socialist have been tagged as dirty words in the political realm. Many people of the older generation still associate these ideas with the dark years of the Cold War, evoking memories of the horrifying prospects of a nuclear war. Even to this day, politicians shy away from these associations.
Looking Back at 20th Century America
Undoubtedly, the 20th century proved to be both transformative and tumultuous for America and its people. In the first half of the 20th century, the two World Wars cemented the U.S.’ vast economic prowess. It also elevated the country to a superpower status capable of influencing global politics. For the remainder of the century, the Cold War pushed the world, on many occasions, towards annihilation. Not only has this shaped U.S. domestic and foreign policy, but it has also affected the worldview of its people. More significantly, the 20th century witnessed America’s meteoric rise from an isolated country to a political and economic powerhouse—a legacy that still profoundly impacts how the world works today.
