The rise of the Mongol Empire under Temujin, or Genghis Khan, was a seminal moment in world history. The conquests of the 13th century helped to spark a cascade of events that created the modern world, in large part due to the terror inspired by the Mongol leader. Genghis Khan proved to be a pioneering ruler, using ideas from Mongolia and beyond.
Genghis Khan: Innovation
The creation of the Mongol Empire at the start of the 13th century was a combination of a number of different factors, all of which were utilized and exploited by Temujin, or Genghis Khan. The creation of the Mongol Empire included several key innovations that built upon past practices from Mongol culture and military tradition.
Mongol archers often used tactics tied to their nomadic lifestyle against enemy armies. Soldiers, for example, learned to time their shots at the moment that all four hooves of their horses lifted off the ground.
The Mongols had also perfected the nomadic steppe horse archer tactic of the “feigned retreat,” where they would make the enemy believe that they were retreating. They would leave on horseback and lead the enemy army on a chase until they were exhausted and slaughter them at range.
Finally, the Mongols utilized a tactic of near-total encirclement, leaving a gap in their lines as a psychological trick. Just as in hunting, the enemy soldiers believed that they were about to be encircled and attempted to flee, destroying cohesion and morale.
A Strong Personal Backstory
Before Genghis Khan was Genghis Khan he was Temujin, a man who grew up in the unstable environment of the Mongol tribes of the 12th century. The future leader suffered the death of his father at the hands of enemies at a young age and was forced into exile with his widowed mother, another wife of his father, and his siblings. It is said that he killed his half-brother after he refused to share a hunting kill with his family. A possibly apocryphal tale stated that he was sold into slavery and escaped in the moonlight.
Things didn’t get easier for Temujin after that. He married his wife Borte, who was kidnapped by an enemy tribe, so he created a posse to free her and bring her back. He was also betrayed by his blood brother Jamukha, who had sworn him an oath at a young age. He was forced to fight a civil war that saw some of his loyal men boiled alive.
It was these early difficulties that helped Temujin become the leader that he became when the Mongol tribes elected him as their leader, granting him the title “Genghis Khan,” or “Chinggis Khan.” Although there are multiple translations of this name, one common one is “universal ruler.”
In creating his new empire, Temujin had united the tribes of a country that were often fighting generations-long blood feuds and welded them together into one of the most effective armies in world history. The newly-named Genghis Khan became a terror for millions of people across the Eurasian steppe and beyond.
Social Equality… Sort Of
We don’t tend to think of the Mongols as being the forerunners of modern democracy. This would be a misleading point of view, but by 13th-century standards, the Mongols represented something far different than many of the other societies on the planet.
After being betrayed by his blood brother Jamukha, Genghis Khan had a different point of view on the role of what made a good leader. Jamukha insisted that he had a better claim to power due to his noble blood. Genghis Khan, on the other hand, was willing to elevate soldiers and officials of common birth.
It is said that when the Mongol tribes elected Temujin in 1206 he lifted a single stick, broke it, and explained that this was one of the Mongol tribes. He then raised two and broke them. He then lifted a bundle of sticks and could not break them, explaining that this was all of the tribes united.
The Mongols also pitted the landed nobility and peasants against each other. The Mongols often claimed that they were there to throw off the repression of the nobles, which often helped build (some) public support for their cause.
Genghis Khan also banned the longstanding practice of wife stealing, in which tribes would kidnap women from other tribes. Having faced this with his mother and Borte, he was determined to bring it to an end.
The Mongols instituted low taxation and religious freedom, which would have been nearly unprecedented for some of the conquered peoples at the time. There was a surprising social mobility as well as strict order.
Terror
The Mongols represented a major leap for nomadic conquests. Nations in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia had all faced various nomadic conquerors, but the Mongols brought it to the next level.
The Mongols had several means to strike fear into their enemies, including walled cities. The Mongols would often utilize a simple equation: surrender or face slavery or death. This was not uncommon among significant empires. However, the scale of Mongol conquests meant that many cities simply gave up rather than face the Mongols.
In other cases, the Mongols would take a city that refused to surrender and not kill the occupants. It wasn’t due to any kindness, but instead was a tactic to undermine their enemy. The fleeing refugees would tell everyone about the Mongols’ military skills, clog up enemy roads, and eat into already-scarce food supplies.
The Mongols would use these tactics with ease. After defeating some Russian princes, the Mongols placed a giant platform on the captured nobles and had a feast on top of it, slowly crushing them to death.
Even after a conquest, the Mongols would often use the death penalty as a means of keeping order. It was said that a traveler had little to worry about traveling along the empire’s vast stretches due to fear of punishment.
Not a Normal Nomadic Leader
As mentioned prior, the idea of a nomadic steppe empire was not new to any of the surrounding societies. However, Genghis Khan was able to transform the warring tribes of Mongolia into the largest contiguous empire in history.
This took several steps. For starters, the Mongol Empire built the first permanent cities in the country’s history. Genghis Khan also commissioned the creation of Mongolia’s writing system, which was borrowed from a nearby Turkic tribe.
The Mongols also borrowed from those they came in contact with. Upon taking new territories, the Mongols would spare learned people and press them into governmental or military service. Others came from outside the empire to help administer it. This allowed the Mongols to have a surprisingly efficient administration despite their relative lack of numbers and the sheer size of their empire.
Perhaps the largest example of borrowing came during the Sack of Baghdad in 1258, following Genghis Khan’s death. The Mongols under his grandson Hulegu took the richest city in the Arab world. In part, this occurred because the Abbasids did not fully realize the Mongols’ ability to take the walled city, and in part thanks to captured engineers. The Muslim caliph was wrapped in a carpet and trampled to death by horses. It was said by Arab chroniclers that the river ran red with blood and black from the ink from the city’s destroyed libraries.
Genghis Khan: Messaging
The fear spread by the Mongols was partly due to circumstance and partially intentional. In addition, the Mongols were quick to reinforce the more negative aspects of their rule.
Genghis Khan once requested trading rights with the Khwarazmian Empire, located largely in modern-day Iran. However, a regional governor had a Mongol caravan destroyed. When Genghis Khan sent ambassadors to Shah Muhammad II, the Shah had him killed, leading to a sharp message back from the Khan.
Genghis Khan is reputed to have sent the Shah the message that “if you had not committed great sins, God would not have sent a punishment like me upon you.” The Mongols would seize the entirety of the country’s empire and chase the Shah until he died after being pursued by Mongol warriors. The Mongols would kill about a quarter of the population of Persia during their campaign and after.
Genghis Khan also introduced one of the first uses of passports. They would have strict messages upon them, forcing diplomatic immunity for the Khan’s messengers. The passports would threaten death to anyone who inhibited the passport holder.
All of this allowed for a great flourishing of ideas and sharing, sometimes called by historians the Mongol peace, or Pax Mongolica. During this era, new ideas came to Europe and the Middle East from Asia, and trade expanded significantly, especially along the Silk Road.
It soon became obvious that the Mongols were not simply barbarians harassing larger empires, but instead a major empire in their own right. What started with a young man who faced personal tragedy became a massive empire, even at the time of his death in 1277.
