Who were the most important thinkers of the Islamic world during the Middle Ages? While there would be too many to include in a single article, there have been several Islamic philosophers from the medieval period whose influence on philosophy stands out. This article discusses the works and legacy of five prominent thinkers from the Islamic medieval tradition: al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Avicenna, al-Ghazali, and—arguably the most influential of them all—Averroes.
Philosophers of the Islamic World During the Middle Ages
Categorizing philosophers into traditions frequently comes with controversy. Calling a philosopher an “Islamic Philosopher” or a “philosopher of the Islamic world” is no exception. The same holds for other labels with religious references because it is not always the case that the philosopher or philosopher has so much religion intertwined in their work as is implied with such a marker. Sometimes this label can be too sweeping, just as it would be to call the history of philosophy in Europe “Christian philosophy” or “philosophy in the Christian world.” Thus, it should be clarified that this article refers to five individuals of the Muslim faith who come from different geographical regions where Islam was the dominant religion. All contributed unique dialogues to the long conversation that is the history of philosophy.
1. Al-Kindi (c. 801-73)
The period from 750 CE to 1258 CE is known as the Golden Age of Islam because of the ruling dynasty of the Abbasids’ promotion of learning and culture. There was an important library in Baghdad that served as a center for the study and translation of Greek and Syriac texts. But although this environment cultivated learning, which included not just theological reflection but also the use of reason and evidence in analysis, a rift grew between the Sunni and Shi’a schools, with the former mostly rejecting the possibility of reconciliation between theology and philosophy, ending with philosophy residing mainly with the latter.
The first individual on record recognized in this group of philosophers of the Islamic world is al-Kindi. As is often the case with those thinkers that this article will cover, he was interested in demonstrating how ancient Greek philosophy could be consistent with Muslim teachings; he thought they both arose from the same source. One such exploration of this came from Plotinus and his doctrine of the primordial One, which shares with Muslim theology the oneness of God; complete unity in the highest degree of reality means singular perfection, which also implies being eternal.
Al-Kindi also drew some parallels with Aristotle’s philosophy on essence. However, he could not reconcile some issues, such as how a person could be a substance, composed of form and matter, but that must also have a non-material soul. Still, he started a conversation that continued with the next individual on the list here, al-Farabi.
2. Al-Farabi (872-950)
Labeled the “Second Teacher” after the individual generally then considered the “first,” Aristotle, al-Farabi continued al-Kindi’s emanationist view that the oneness of God also explains creation as being the highest degree of reality means that the universe emanates from God. Al-Farabi placed philosophical study above theological study, persuaded that logic was a universal language. Thus, he was a strong advocate for Aristotle and Plato.
Al-Farabi was significantly influenced by Plato’s political philosophy, agreeing that the best kind of ruler was the one outlined by Plato’s notion of the “philosopher-king,” an individual solely pursuing wisdom. However, he also recognized that it is not always easy to find such a philosopher-king in society, so he focused on studying what causes the decay of society.
He argued that this is the result of three causes: error, wickedness, or ignorance. When people err, they do not apply knowledge correctly. When people are wicked, they do not use their knowledge. When people are ignorant, they lack understanding. However, as the history of philosophy is a long conversation, keeping Aristotle in the discussion with his commentaries was one of the most important of al-Farabi’s contributions.
3. Avicenna (980-1037)
Much is conjectured about Avicenna because he was one of the few thinkers to have written an autobiography. However, it may not be entirely accurate, given the author’s exaggerated view of himself. Either way, arguably, Avicenna (as he is known in the West) would become one of the most influential philosophers on this list.
For Avicenna, philosophy helps the individual seek the truth and the good. Philosophical study leads to the soul’s perfection because philosophy provides both knowledge and how to apply that knowledge. Avicenna distinguishes between theoretical knowledge and practical knowledge — this is what philosophical reflection helps us see. Thus, he also reconciles philosophy and theology, with the latter being a form of practical knowledge.
Logic was very important to Avicenna. Logic is the basis for critical thinking, as well as for human happiness. Logic leads us to knowledge and truth, as well as how to act upon that knowledge to achieve happiness. Avicenna also makes important contributions to continuing the emanationist view, arguing that God is the only necessary being that causes everything else to exist because everything else is contingent. But there must be something that is not contingent on bringing those other things into being, and that necessary first cause of everything is God. Avicenna’s view of God thus parallels Aristotle’s notion of the “unmoved Mover.” God, being necessary, one, and perfect, does not change, so God is involved with other things that do not change.
4. Al-Ghazali (1058-1111)
Al-Ghazali did not consider himself a “philosopher” and could perhaps be categorized as the “anti-philosopher” of this list. His most famous work was titled The Incoherence of the Philosophers, which was a very clear rejection of the discipline. Principally important for al-Ghazali was to place theology back above philosophy, as he thought philosophy undermined Islam; revelation and faith are more important than logic and reason, he argued. However, in demonstrating his arguments for this, he also used philosophy by working to show how emphasis on philosophical reasoning fails.
Al-Ghazali was especially concerned with what he saw as Avicenna’s errors. He argued that Avicenna’s views on the eternity of the universe, such as the impersonal God that is unconcerned with the particulars of the universe, were mistakes that undermined the Islamic faith (which taught the opposite). Al-Ghazali even went as far as to advocate for the killing of anyone who proposed such views. Thus, al-Ghazali was part of the rift that led to the Sunni emphasis on revelation as superior to reason and the dominance of theology over philosophy.
5. Averroes (1126-1198)
As noted, often in the long conversation that is the history of philosophy, an inquiry is sparked by disagreement, which would continue with the next and probably the most influential thinker in this list, Averroes. In response to al-Ghazali’s key text on the Incoherence of the Philosophers, Averroes wrote The Incoherence of the Incoherence to argue for bringing back the critical role of philosophical reflection.
Some of Averroes’ Aristotelian views would conflict with dominant Islamic doctrine. For example, Averroes agreed with the view of a single, universal mind, that of God, rejecting the view of the individual souls of humans. In fact, his views would later be reinterpreted by Saint Thomas Aquinas to bring them more in line with Christianity. Still, some of Averroes’ most important contributions to the history of philosophy were his commentaries on Aristotle.
Averroes understood philosophy and theology to be reconcilable and that any disagreement between the two stems from a lack of clear understanding of the conflict, which is essentially not a conflict. He also argued that disagreement over the eternity of the universe could be resolved with an Aristotelian lens by positing that it was the form that was imposed on it at a certain time, but that the universe, in sum, is eternal. In general, Averroes understood philosophy and theology to be two avenues towards the same truth.
The History of Philosophy in the Islamic World
Despite the important contributions of the figures in this list, the reputation of Islamic philosophy was primarily defined by the work of al-Ghazali. Still, much of the work among the philosophers of Europe during the Middle Ages was significantly impacted by the world of these philosophers of the Islamic world, such as through their translations of important ancient Greek texts into Arabic and eventually into Latin. Commentaries on Aristotle—as noted, considered the “First Teacher” and ultimate source of philosophy—such as those by Averroes especially, would prove to be critical in continuing the long conversation that is the history of philosophy. All of these thinkers made important contributions that subsequently shaped the history of philosophy, of which this article only scratches the surface.
