Middle Kingdom Pyramids: The Lesser Known Pyramids of Ancient Egypt

During the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040-1782 BCE), Egypt rebounded from the First Intermediate Period to build a strong and stable empire. But it is still often ranked behind the Old Kingdom and the New Kingdom in terms of importance, especially regarding architecture. The Old Kingdom had the great pyramids, and the New Kingdom had its colossal temples. What did the Middle Kingdom have?

Several Middle Kingdom pharaohs revived the art of pyramid building, but different construction methods meant that their pyramids did not stand the test of time. However, these monumental tombs were innovative in other ways. This is a survey of the most important Middle Kingdom pyramids.

The collapse of the Old Kingdom did not happen suddenly but was the culmination of a long process. The central authority of the Egyptian state based in Memphis weakened until competing dynasties formed in the Fayum city of Heracleopolis and the Upper Egyptian city of Thebes. Decentralized power characterized the First Intermediate Period (2180-2040 BCE).

The first ruler of the Middle Kingdom, Mentuhotep II (ruled c. 2061-2010 BCE) of the 11th dynasty in Thebes, embarked on a campaign to forcibly reunite Egypt. Mentuhotep II ruled Egypt from Thebes, but the first king of the 12th dynasty, Amenemhat I (reigned c. 1991-1962 BCE), decided to move the capital.

The location of the new capital was in Lower Egypt, just north of the Fayum near the modern village of Lisht. Amenemhat I named his new capital Iti-tawi, which is translated as “Seizer of the Two Lands.” Although Memphis and Thebes remained important religious, administrative, and cultural centers, Lisht/Iti-tawi was the king’s primary residence, in this life and the next.

Early Middle Kingdom Pyramids

Amenemhat I was the first king of the Middle Kingdom to reintroduce the idea of a pyramid complex as a tomb and place to worship the deified pharaoh. The Old Kingdom pharaohs all named their pyramids, so when Amenemhat I revived the tradition he named his, Soot Khau Amenemhat, or “The Places of Appearances of Amenemhat.”

Amenemhat I’s pyramid had a 276-foot base, a height of 180 feet, and a 54-degree slope. The core of the pyramid was made of small blocks of rough limestone, sand, debris, and mudbrick. The outer casing was made of limestone.

Amenemhat I’s son and successor, Senusret I (Senwosret/Sesostris) (ruled c. 1971-1926 BCE), built his pyramid about 1.25 miles south of his father’s. Senusret I’s pyramid was slightly larger, with a 300-foot base and a height of 201 feet, but what made it more impressive was the overall size of the complex.

All Egyptian pyramids were part of much larger complexes. The pyramid served as the focal point where the king’s body was usually interred. But it was part of a larger complex enclosed by a wall. Within the wall were chapels where priests would perform rituals for the deified king and courtyards that were used for sed festivals. The sed festival was a jubilee celebration of a king’s thirty years on the throne, which the king participated in by running a circuit of the courtyard.

Senusret I’s pyramid complex included nine smaller pyramids for his queens and what is known as a “satellite pyramid.” Satellite pyramids, which were miniature doubles of the main pyramids, were common in the Old Kingdom and were believed to house the deceased king’s ka or spirit. Senusret I’s satellite pyramid was the last one built in Egypt and the only one known from the Middle Kingdom.

The primary pyramid, the satellite pyramid, and a chapel entrance to the main pyramid were enclosed by a mudbrick wall. Another mudbrick wall enclosed the queens’ pyramids along with an inner enclosure, creating an enclosure within an enclosure. A causeway led to the entrance of the first gate and an entrance hall that was between the outer and inner enclosures. Senusret I’s immediate successor had difficulties replicating the impressiveness of his pyramid complex.

Senusret I’s successor was Amenemhat II (reigned c. 1929-1895 BCE). He built his pyramid near the Lower Egyptian village of Dahshur. This move put his pyramid closer to the Old Kingdom pyramids, but it unfortunately did not stand the test of time. Little remains of the pyramid and it has not been completely cleared, but it probably had a base of about 65 feet. A sloping entrance passage leads to what is probably the burial chamber and a vertical shaft that connects to it, but this is now all underwater.

Senusret II (ruled c. 1897-1878) made two notable changes to his pyramid. The first was relocating his pyramid back to the Fayum region, closer to Lisht. The second was building his pyramid with a complete mudbrick core. The first change was not as permanent, as later rulers alternated between the Fayum and the Delta, but the second innovation was permanent. All subsequent Middle Kingdom pyramids were also built with mudbrick cores. The pyramid was similar in size to previous Middle Kingdom pyramids, with a base of 348 feet and a height of 159 feet.

Senusret III (ruled c. 1878-1860 BCE) chose to build his pyramid in Dahshur in the shadow of Old Kingdom pharaoh Sneferu’s (reigned c. 2613-2589 BCE) Bent Pyramid. Senusret III’s pyramid was notable because sand was used instead of mortar to fill the seams of the mudbrick core. This change was perhaps a sign of the declining quality of Middle Kingdom pyramids, or possibly even the decline of the Middle Kingdom itself. With that said, Senusret III’s successor was the most ambitious of all Middle Kingdom pyramid builders.

The Pyramids of Amenemhat III 

Amenemhat III (reigned c. 1860-1815 BCE) ruled Egypt for nearly forty years, which allowed him to leave his mark on art, foreign policy, and architecture.

The first pyramid he built was named “Amenemhat is Beautiful” and was located in Dahshur. It was second in height to Senusret III’s pyramid at 246 feet and had a base of 344 feet. However, the underground chambers of the pyramid had structural problems, so it had to be abandoned. Fortunately for the long-lived pharaoh, Amenemhat III had plenty of time to build an even more enduring afterlife abode.

Amenemhat III had his next pyramid built in the Fayum near Hawara. Named “Amenemhat Lives,” the second pyramid was 190 feet high with a base of 344 feet and an angle of 48 degrees. This was not as impressive as his Dahshur pyramid in terms of size. But what the Hawara pyramid lacked in size it made up for with the historical importance of its courtyard complex.

The mortuary temple within the enclosure of Amenemhat III’s pyramid was large, intricate, and on two levels. It was so impressive that the 5th century BCE Greek historian Herodotus and the 1st century CE Greek geographer Strabo visited and wrote about the site. The classical authors compared the complex to the labyrinth of the legendary King Minos, who, according to myth, would send children to the complex to be eaten by the Minotaur. Herodotus wrote:

“The pyramids, too, are astonishing structures, each one of them equal to many of the most ambitious works of Greece; but the labyrinth surpasses them. It has twelve covered courts—six in a row facing north, six south—the ages of the one range exactly fronting the gates of the other, with a continuous wall round the outside of the whole. Inside, the building is of two stories and contains three thousand rooms, of which half are underground, and the other half directly above them.”

When compared to their Old Kingdom counterparts, the Middle Kingdom pyramids were smaller. The mudbrick cores also ensured that the Middle Kingdom pyramids would be far less enduring, but that is not to say that they were not architecturally important. Middle Kingdom engineers designed their pyramids to deal with the situation at hand, and a considerable workforce was needed to complete the projects.

As mentioned previously, the biggest difference between Middle Kingdom pyramids and those of the Old Kingdom, especially those built in the 4th dynasty, was the use of mudbrick. The 4th dynasty pyramids used stone cores while those built from Senusret III onward used mudbrick cores. Although Old Kingdom pyramids fell victim to later cultures reusing their casings to build medieval parts of Egypt, their stone cores ensured they would endure. This was not the case with the Middle Kingdom pyramids. The use of mudbrick cores indicates that the Middle Kingdom rulers did not have the resources to create purely stone structures.

Middle Kingdom engineers introduced another interesting building technique. In the Old Kingdom, pyramid builders would join structurally important blocks using fine joints. Middle Kingdom engineers abandoned those in favor of wooden dovetail cramps. It is estimated that about 12,000 wooden dovetail cramps were used in Senusret I’s pyramid complex, each one bearing the name of the king.

Although the Middle Kingdom pyramids were not as grand as those of the Old Kingdom, they still required a significant workforce to be built. Based on archaeological evidence, it is estimated that 4,770 workers were used on average during the Middle Kingdom. Most workers were drafted in a corvee system, which was a form of enforced labor.

The workers included about 1,500 stone transporters, who had the most dangerous job. These men would deliver the stone or mud bricks on sleds that were pulled by several men. Water was used as a lubricant for the sled as it was pulled up an earthen ramp to place the blocks. The skilled workers included brick makers, stone cutters, sailors, and engineers. It has also been estimated that about 1,500 auxiliary workers were part of an average pyramid-building labor force. These workers included sculptors and painters as well as cooks, brewers, bakers, weavers, and water carriers.

In contrast, it is estimated that the Old Kingdom Pharaoh’s gathered workforces of between 20,000 to 10,000 workers to construct their pyramids.