The Ottomans are one of the most interesting, yet misunderstood, dynasties in history. How did the Empire come about? Did Sultans really have to kill their brothers when they came to power? Was this group even ethnically Turkish? Find out the fascinating, yet often gruesome, history of this empire.
1. They Started as Nomadic Pastoralists
The Ottoman principality was formed around 1300 CE by the eponymous Osman, a Turkmen (nomadic Turkic) chieftain. The Turkmen were a largely nomadic group that had migrated from Central Asia to Anatolia around the 11th century. They lived mainly as pastoralists, migrating with their herds in a transhumant manner, i.e., seasonally, between summer and winter pastures.
Scholars agree that the tribe that Osman belonged to may have migrated to Anatolia to escape the Mongol conquests of the 13th century. Ottoman-era historians, however, preferred to depict Osman and his father Ertugrul as frontier lords who worked for the Seljuk Sultanate. Connecting themselves to the Seljuks ultimately gave the Ottomans a sense of political legitimacy and sanctioned their territorial ambitions.
Although there are no contemporary sources from the time of Ertugrul, Osman had coins minted in his name which referred to him as the son of Ertugrul. Later Ottoman historians put out differing claims. Some believed that Ertugrul was a peaceful shepherd; others, that he was a fierce warrior committed to holy war.
2. They Began as One of Many Turkic Principalities That Governed Anatolia
From the 11th to the 14th century, Anatolia was ruled by the Seljuks, a dynasty of Oghuz Turkic origin. Following the breakdown of Seljuk rule in the late 14th century, several Turkic principalities emerged. These principalities were mostly of nomadic origin. Claude Cahen, a foremost scholar on pre-Ottoman Turkey, notes that many of the Turkmen migrants seemed like harmless shepherds, but used their expertise in steppe warfare tactics to raid and plunder villages.
The Ottomans emerged as a frontier principality on the borders of Byzantine lands. As such, they were able to make raids and conquests into European cities not controlled by other Turkic principalities. In the span of a century, the Ottomans controlled several Balkan states, including Serbia, Macedonia, and Bulgaria.
3. Ottoman Culture was Influenced by the Byzantines, Persians, and Arabs
Although the Ottomans had Turkic roots, by the mid-14th century, they had adopted many of the trappings of sedentary courts. While Persian court poetry and administrative titles were adopted from the Persians, art and interior design, such as rhythmic patterns and floral motifs, were influenced by Arab/Islamic architectural culture.
After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by the young Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, the Ottomans began to view themselves as the successors of the Eastern Roman Empire. As a result, they adopted some Byzantine architectural traditions, such as domed mosques created in the style of Byzantine churches.
4. Most of the Sultans Had Foreign Mothers
From the reign of Orhan (d. 1326), the Ottomans began to take non-Turkic and even non-Muslim wives and consorts. To secure a political alliance, Sultan Orhan was married to the Byzantine Princess, Theodora. This was a common practice among many Medieval polities who aimed to secure political and financial power by aligning themselves with other powerful regional actors. The Ottomans likewise used this tactic to increase their land across Anatolia and the Balkans.
However, it was the slave-concubinage system that was the main reason why the Ottomans had non-Turkic mothers. Enslaved girls, mainly from European provinces, were brought to the Ottoman court and educated in high arts, culture, and Islamic religion. Those who caught the eye of the valide (queen mother) or the Sultan became concubines, while others were married to Ottoman officials, or simply worked in the Harem.
In theory, a Sultan was supposed to have only one son with a concubine. The reason behind this policy was that mothers were understood to be the greatest supporters of their son’s bid for the throne. In the early period of Ottoman rule, princes, along with their mothers, were sent to govern provinces around the empire. This changed during the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566), who married his concubine Hürrem and brought her and their children to live permanently in the Topkapi Palace.
5. The Ottoman Ruling Class Was Largely Made Up of Slaves
The Ottomans weren’t the first empire to use slaves in their administrative systems. The Mamluk Sultanate (13th-16th c.), a governing dynasty that emerged in Egypt, was ruled by manumitted slave soldiers. Likewise, slaves played a crucial part in Ottoman politics and government. Most Ottoman sultans had mothers who were slave concubines. The Harem, or women’s quarters, were run by such women, like the queen mother or Haseki, the chief consort of the Sultan. In addition to this, the harem was guarded by African eunuchs, many of whom rose to power as the close confidants and supporters of the queen mother or concubines.
European slaves were either taken through the devshirme system or were bought from slave traders. The devshirme was a child levy that Balkan Christians were subject to. Several families would have one male child taken from them to be raised as Muslims in court. These children would be trained in either administrative or military roles. Many went on to become janissaries, grand viziers, statesmen, or religious scholars who attained prestige and power.
6. Religious Tolerance Was Important in the Running of the Empire
The Ottomans favored a policy of religious tolerance toward their Christian and Jewish subjects. According to Islamic belief, these two communities were considered “people of the Book,” and therefore, had status as dhimmi, or “protected peoples.” They were allowed to practice their religions in peace and were subject to their own law courts, although some non-Muslims preferred to take their cases to the Ottoman courts.
Non-Muslims also played important roles as merchants, tradespeople, and even court workers. The Kira, for instance, was a non-Muslim woman who worked as an intermediary between the women of the harem and the outside world, including male businessmen. In the 16th century, the Jewish Esperanza Malchi gained influence by acting as the Kira for Safiye Sultan, the powerful mother of Sultan Mehmed III.
However, this did not necessarily mean that non-Muslims could attain equal rank or opportunity to Muslim citizens of the Ottoman Empire. Christian and Jewish people were subject to the jizya, a poll tax levied on non-Muslims who lived under Muslim rule. Additionally, until 1648, Balkan Christian populations were also routinely subject to the devshirme system mentioned above.
7. Ottoman Rule Continued for 600 Years
The Ottomans were one of the longest-ruling dynasties in history. During the early days of the principality, the Ottomans did not rule Anatolia exclusively on their own. Instead, they administered several towns and cities, pledging their loyalty to the Ilkhanids, the successors of the mighty Mongol Empire. As the Ottomans gained territory and power across Eurasia, they faced mighty foes, like Timur, who captured Ottoman Sultan Bayezid in 1402 and threw the empire into internecine conflict. Although it seemed like the Ottoman state was reaching an end, Bayezid’s son Mehmed I managed to unite and organize the empire once more.
The Ottomans were a “hereditary monarchy” in which rule passed from one member of the royal family to another. However, it differed from other monarchies, such as those in England and Russia, where rule generally passed to the eldest son, or on rare occasions, to female members of the family. According to Ottoman custom, only males could inherit the throne. Also, unlike in the European system of primogeniture (where rule passes to the eldest male), all sons of the Sultan had an equal right to rule. These succession laws caused much conflict not only between the sons of the sultans but also between the mothers, wives, and concubines who wished to see their own sons in power.
However, this changed after the death of Ahmed I. (r. 1603-1617). Since Ahmed’s sons were too young to become rulers, the sultanate went to his brother Mustafa I. Until the dissolution of the empire in 1923, rule continued to alternate between sultans, and their brothers, uncles, and sons.
8. The Ottoman Dynasty Still Exists Today
Following the establishment of the Republic of Turkey on the 29th of October 1923, the Ottomans were in a tough situation. Since the country was now a democracy, there was no need for a ruling dynasty. But what was to be done with the Ottoman family? Were they to be executed like the Romanov Dynasty had been in Russia in 1918? Or were they to be exiled, a common practice amongst the Ottomans themselves?
Republican authorities decided on March 3rd, 1924, to abolish the Caliphate and exile all members of the Ottoman Dynasty. Behind this decision were several reasons; Certain members of the dynasty had taken the stance of non-confrontation and even support of European powers like Britain, Russia, and Greece during the Turkish War of Independence (1919-1923). There was also the possibility of the Ottomans gaining support for the re-establishment of monarchic rule.
After being exiled, many members of the dynasty escaped to European nations like Britain, France, and Malta. Others were married into royal families in Egypt and Pakistan. Although the female members of the dynasty were allowed to return after 1951, and the male members after 1973, most of the descendants of the Ottomans still live outside of Turkey. In recent times, they have been invited to Turkey by senior politicians and have appeared on several media programs.
