The leaders of the Allied Powers (Britain, US, France, Italy, Russia and Japan) had the difficult task of deciding what should happen to the defeated Central Powers (Germany, Austria Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria) after the war. David Lloyd George (Britain), Woodrow Wilson (the US), Georges Clemenceau (France) and Vittorio Orlando (Italy) became known as the Big Four after meeting, and leading, at the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919. Crucial decision making took place at the conference and, most significantly, the Treaty of Versailles was created from it.
What Was the Paris Peace Conference?
When the Armistice was signed on the 11th of November 1918, it was agreed that a Peace Conference would be held in Paris to settle affairs following the war. This would eventually be the Paris Peace Conference the following year. Beginning on January the 18th, 1919 the conference involved 27 nations. Delegations for the countries who lost the war were not allowed to attend- they only received terms of the treaties when they were laid out following negotiations. [1] Meetings were held at various locations in and around Paris, including the Palace of Versailles, until 20th January 1920.
What Were the Aims of the Big Four?
David Lloyd George served as Prime Minister from 1916 to 1922, navigating the First World War and its aftermath, representing Britain at the conference. The British public desired harsh punishment for Germany, and although Lloyd George wanted punishment for Germany too, he took a softer approach. He wanted to please the British public, but he was also aware of the importance of trade with Germany for the economy so advocated for more lenience.
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Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States, serving between 1913 and 1921, representing the US at the conference. Wilson wanted lasting peace and wanted Germany to be treated fairly, for blame not to be placed solely at Germany’s door. He drew on his earlier created 14 points to advocate the creation of a peace-keeping organisation titled the League of Nations which would solve disputes and prevent future conflict. [2]
Georges Benjamin Clemenceau served as the Prime Minister of France between 1917 and 1920. Clemenceau represented France at the conference, where he lived up to his nickname ‘The Tiger’. Clemenceau took a much harsher line- he wanted huge reparations and to punish Germany harshly so that the country was so weak it could not attack again. He also wanted Germany to take the blame for starting the war and wanted land which had been conceded to Germany previously to be returned to France, especially Alsace-Lorraine. [3]
Vittorio Emanuele Orlando was the Prime Minister of Italy from October 1917 to June 1919, he was known as the ‘Premier of Victory’ following the defeat of the Central Powers. Italy’s desires were made apparent before 1919, and Orlando attended the conference to secure what had been promised. In 1915, Italy had made a secret agreement (The Treaty of London) with France, Britain and Russia. It was agreed that should Italy enter the war on the allied side, they would receive territory at the end of it. [4]
By March 1919, divisions really began to show, especially regarding Germany. Lloyd George was still concerned that a harsh peace would only result in an angry, bitter Germany so he composed the Fontainebleau Memorandum which warned of the potential repercussions of too harsh a peace. [5]
What Was the Outcome of the Paris Peace Conference?
After a year of negotiations between almost 30 nations, the peace conference ended with treaties signed by Germany, Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary and Turkey. The most significant of these was the treaty created for Germany, the Treaty of Versailles. [6]
Each of the Big Four achieved some of their desired outcomes in the Treaty of Versailles:
- It was agreed that the Allies would occupy the Rhineland for 15 years, which satisfied Clemenceau
- Lloyd George persuaded Clemenceau to agree to the League of Nations to satisfy Wilson, and convinced Wilson to agree to the War Guilt Clause to appease Clemenceau
- Lloyd George achieved his own aim by persuading Clemenceau to agree to a more lenient peace that would not totally destroy Germany
- Although they had wanted more, Italy was given a seat on the League of Nations, a share in German war reparations and control of the Tyrol region
The Germans were shown the treaty with no option for negotiation and on the 28th of June 1919, the delegates met at the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles and forced two Germans to sign. Although it was hoped that the conference would establish, and allow for, a lasting peace, this hope would be shattered with the advent of World War Two.
Sources
[1] Tudor Roşu, Călin Anghel, Sorin Arhire, The Paris Peace Conference and Its Consequences in Early-1920s Europe (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2023), p.1.
[2] THE PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE, The Advocate of Peace (1894-1920), Vol. 81, No. 1 (JANUARY 1919), p.163.
[3] THE PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE, The Advocate of Peace (1894-1920), Vol. 81, No. 1 (JANUARY 1919), p.162.
[4] Stefano Marcuzzi, Britain and Italy in the Era of the Great War: Defending and Forging Empires (Cambridge University Press, 2020), p.5.
[5] Paul W. Doerr, British Foreign Policy, 1919-1939 (Manchester University Press, 1998), p.48.
