Marcus Cocceius Nerva became emperor of the Roman Empire following the assassination of Domitian in 96 CE. Chosen by the senate, he was the first in the series known as the “Five Good Emperors.” But his short reign is often overshadowed by the chaos and fear caused by his predecessor Domitian, and the triumph and stability of his successor, Trajan. So, what did Nerva achieve in his less than 18 months in power?
1. Nerva Prevented Civil War
While historians debate the true character of the last Flavian emperor Domitian, there is little doubt that he was autocratic in his rule and paranoid about treason, perhaps with good reason. The Revolt of Saturninus happened in 89 CE when the Roman governor of Germania Superior rebelled against the emperor. While the revolt was put down within 24 days, it shook Domitian.
The emperor rewarded those who proved their loyalty during the revolt, including Nerva. While his role is unknown, he held the consulship jointly with Domitian the following year, a clear sign of favor. The emperor also launched treason trials to identify and deal with his enemies. Informants used the opportunity and the paranoia of the emperor to deal with their enemies.
There may have been further threats to Domitian, perhaps in 93 CE as the treason trials seem to have intensified in that year. By the end of his reign, at least 20 senators had lost their lives, including the ex-husband of Domitian’s wife Domitia Longina, and Domitian’s cousin, Titus Flavius Clemens. Before this time, Domitian seems to have favored Clemens’ sons as potential successors, referring to them as “Vespasian” and “Domitian.”
By 98 CE, Roman historians tell us that there was a dark cloud hanging over Rome and that no one felt safe. This is supposedly what motivated Domitian’s chamberlain Parthenius and some of his freedmen to stab Domitian in his office on December 18th, 98 CE. The Praetorian Prefect, Titus Petronius Secundus, also seems to have been aware of the plot and, at a minimum, did nothing to stop it.
According to the Fasti Ostiensis, the same day Domitian was killed, the Senate chose Nerva to be his successor. Many of these senators lived through the civil wars of 69 CE that followed the death of the last Julio-Claudian emperor Nero and eventually put the first Flavian emperor Vespasian in power. Someone needed to be chosen quickly to avoid a power struggle, and if the senate did not move, the Praetorian Guard would — as they had when they elevated Claudius following the assassination of Gaius Caligula.
Why exactly was Nerva their chosen candidate? He was from a prestigious senatorial family. Born in the Italian city of Narni in around 30 CE, Nerva was one in a line of several senators called Marcus Cocceius Nerva. His great-grandfather was consul in 36 BCE and then governor of Syria. His grandfather shared the consulship with Tiberius in 21 or 22 CE and then accompanied the reclusive emperor to Capri. Nerva’s father was a consul under Caligula.
Nerva himself was a praetor-elect in 65 CE under Nero. In that same year, he helped Nero foil the Pisonian conspiracy, much as he helped Domitian with Saturninus. Nerva was awarded triumphal honors and statues in the palace for his efforts. He was friends with Vespasian, and the future emperor even asked Nerva to watch over his young son Domitian while he was away fighting the Judean War. That means that the teenage Domitian may have been in Nerva’s care in Rome during the Civil War. Domitian was first imprisoned by the Vitellian faction, and when the tide turned, met the incoming Flavian troops who declared him Caesar, recognizing him as the son of the new emperor Vespasian.
Nerva seems to have been a Flavian supporter. He was consul under Vespasian in 71 CE and under Domitian in 90 CE. This may have worked in his favor, as despite claims that Domitian was widely loathed, he had supporters in Rome. The army called for his deification, but instead, the Senate damned his memory, having Domitian’s name and image stricken from public display.
Therefore, it was likely that Nerva appealed to the Senate as one of their own and was acceptable to the Domitianic faction as a Flavian supporter. He was also rather old, in his mid or late 60s at the time, and had no children. This meant that there was no chance of an ambitious son starting a new dynasty. Whether Nerva accepted the position to satisfy his ambition or altruistically to avoid civil war will also never be known.
To consolidate his new position, Nerva granted a congiarium of 75 denarii to each citizen, and a donativum of 5,000 denarii to each Praetorian Guard, the only Roman soldiers allowed in Rome. Nerva dismissed the Praetorian Prefect who was suspected of being aware of the assassination plot and replaced him with a previous prefect, Casperius Aelianus. But when the Praetorians called for the execution of the former prefect, Nerva refused. Consequently, Nerva’s power in Rome was not as firm as it could have been. Coins minted with the legend “Concordia Exercituum” represented wishful thinking.
2. Nerva Ended Senatorial Treason Trials
Roman historians who have left accounts of Domitian focus on the terror of the treason trials during the final years of his reign. In response to this and to set a new tone, Nerva declared that no senators would be executed while he was in power. This is probably what motivated Nerva’s refusal to execute anyone involved in Domitian’s death, as he had declared amnesty.
Many senators who had previously been imprisoned were released, and those who had been exiled were allowed to return. Property that had been confiscated was also returned to families. These moves would have been popular with the Senate who chose him.
Nevertheless, early in 97 CE, there was a conspiracy against Nerva led by a senator called Gaius Calpurnius Piso Crassus Frugi Lucianus. Seeking power for himself, the senator tried to usurp the loyalty of the Praetorians but was detected. Nerva confronted him publicly at a spectacle, allowing the senator to approach him with a blade and daring him to assassinate him, showing that he had no fear of death. The treasonous senator backed down. While there were calls for him to be executed, Nerva refused on principle and had him exiled.
Later, in October 97 CE, the Praetorians laid siege to Nerva’s home and took Nerva hostage. In the end, he had to agree to hand over the people responsible for Domitian’s death to be executed and was forced to give a public speech thanking the Praetorians for their actions in seeking justice. This seriously undermined Nerva’s authority.
Moreover, while Nerva would not prosecute anyone for treason, he allowed the Senate to carry out the prosecution of former informers. With each seeking revenge, this resulted in a new chaotic terror. According to Cassius Dio, the consul for that year, Fronto, commented that Domitian’s tyranny was preferable to Nerva’s anarchy.
3. Nerva Made Reforms to Help the Poor
Nerva passed a range of new laws during his short time in office designed to help the poor. He set aside land worth around 60 million sestertii to give to the poor as allotments. He eliminated the inheritance tax between parents and children, and he abolished the Fiscus Judaicus, which was a tax on Jews.
Nerva also initiated an alimenta scheme that would be carried on by his successors until 272 CE. It seems to have been popular because it is well documented in literature and epigraphy. It was based on loans given to Italian landowners, who were then required to pay 5% interest on the loan to their municipality, which was used to help poor and orphaned Italian children. The impact of the law was questionable, with an estimated 10% of children receiving help, but the political impact appears to have been broader.
According to Pliny the Younger, the program aimed to rejuvenate the Italian population to populate the army barracks and voting tribes. If that is the case, it feels like an extension of the moral Lex Julia laws passed under Augustus encouraging childbirth among Roman citizens. The law was probably promoted as strengthening Italy as the heartland of the Roman Empire.
But while Nerva was generous, his changes also left the state lacking in funds. He had to appoint a special commission to determine ways to save money, which included canceling all non-essential spectacles. The administration also auctioned off Domitian’s possessions and melted down gold and silver statues of the previous emperor. Nerva forbade any similar statues of himself to be erected.
4. Nerva Secured a Smooth Succession
From early in his reign, Nerva was under pressure to secure his succession. While the Senate probably didn’t want Nerva to start a familial dynasty when they chose him, they didn’t want the chaos of another emperor dying without an heir. Nerva was reportedly considering the governor of Syria, Marcus Cornelius Nigrinus Curiatius Maternus, but there was also a strong faction supporting Marcus Ulpius Traianus, better known as Trajan, the governor of Germania Superior.
Following the dispute with the Praetorians, Nerva had to make a decision, and Trajan was his only viable option. He was the only man who commanded the support of the army and had a sufficiently aristocratic lineage to satisfy the Senate. In choosing Trajan, Nerva is credited with creating a smooth succession, but he may not have felt that way when his hand was forced.
By forgoing nepotism and choosing a proven general who was the “best man for the job,” Nerva is credited with initiating a new ideology for selecting successors. But the reality of this ideal is questionable. Trajan was succeeded by Hadrian, his cousin, and ward. Hadrian initially groomed his brother-in-law as successor, but he was too old to take over. He then adopted Antoninus Pius, on the condition that he adopt two of Hadrian’s family members, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. This pair ruled together until Verus died in 169 CE. Aurelius then made his son Commodus his co-ruler in 177 CE until his death in 180 CE. This is seen as the end of the period of the “good emperors,” since Commodus was a notorious tyrant.
5. Nerva Became a God
Reportedly, Nerva had a stroke on January 1st, 98 CE, and later died on January 26th, 98 CE. Trajan in Germany became the new emperor but decided to tour the provinces before arriving in Rome. He did not arrive until the summer of 99 CE.
When Trajan did arrive, his first order of business was to dismiss the Praetorian Prefect who had mutinied against Nerva. He then ensured that Nerva was deified, in the tradition of Roman emperors. Pliny says that Trajan dedicated a temple to Nerva, but no signs of it survive. The first coins for Nerva were only minted around 10 years after his death, which may indicate that this is when the temple was dedicated.
Was Nerva a Good Emperor?
While the contemporary Roman historian Tacitus did not get around to writing an account of Nerva’s reign, he did comment that Nerva’s rise to power was the dawn of a happy age after the tyranny of Domitian. But was Nerva a successful emperor?
By agreeing to take the imperial purple, he avoided civil war, but within less than six months he was facing conspiracies. While he stopped treason trials, his refusal to put anyone to death caused him to lose the support of the army and the Praetorian Guard, who wanted revenge for Domitian’s death. Plus, he let the Senate prosecute informers, resulting in chaos. Nerva started programs to help the poor, but they seem to have had a limited impact and have caused major financial issues for the state. He chose a successor to start a new line of “good emperors” based on skill rather than family, but his hand was forced, and his successors still followed nepotistic policies. While Nerva was deified, the new god Nerva was all but ignored in future years.
