Toussaint L’Ouverture: A Biography of the Haitian Revolutionary

Toussaint L’Ouverture emerged as the leader of the Haitian revolution in the late 1780s, playing a key role in leading the enslaved population in their fight for freedom. Toussaint L’Ouverture established a self-governed French protectorate in Saint-Domingue, populated by emancipated former slaves. Fearing to lose the grip over its colony, L’Ouverture was eventually captured by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802 and detained at Fort de Joux, where he died a year later. Toussaint L’Ouverture brought irreversible waves of change in the French colony, resulting in the establishment of independent Haiti in 1804.

François Dominique Toussaint was born in 1743 on the plantation of Bréda at Haut de Cap, located in the French colony called Saint-Domingue, present-day Haiti. Though not well documented, it is believed that L’Ouverture’s father was the eldest of the eight children of the king of Allada (a kingdom in West Africa), Gaou Guinou. His mother was Pauline, Guinou’s second wife. The family were sold into slavery in Saint-Domingue as prisoners of war.

From a very young age, Toussaint L’Ouverture demonstrated excellent capabilities and interest in education and literature. His godfather, Pierre-Baptiste, who was living on the Bréda plantation, gave Toussaint a general education. As the letters from his earlier life demonstrate, he spoke French and Creole – a blend of two or more languages. The most spoken Creole language is Haitian Creole, a mix of French and African tribal languages.

Physically short, skinny, and small-framed, Toussaint demonstrated stamina and loyalty. He dressed simply, reflecting his modest lifestyle, and chose to be vegetarian as a way to express his deep appreciation for medicinal plants and horsemanship.

Due to his exceptional nature, intelligence, and hard work, he was favored by Bayon de Libertad, the manager of the Bréda plantation. Thus, Toussant managed to rise from livestock handler to chief steward of the plantation in a short period. As the plantation manager’s favorite, he was allowed unlimited access to his personal library.

Toussaint L’Ouverture was inspired by the Enlightenment political philosophers and teachings of Catholicism. Toussaint remained a Roman Catholic throughout his life, choosing not to adhere to Vodou (or Voodoo), which was the leading African diasporic religion developed in Haiti between the 16th and 19th centuries.

He was particularly fascinated with the Greek Stoic philosopher Epictetus, who was also born in slavery. As his public speeches demonstrate, Toussaint was familiar with Machiavelli and French philosopher Abbé Raynal. Reportedly, Abbé Raynal’s work, Histoire des deux Indes (A History of the Two Indies, published in 1770), which outlined the inevitable revolt in the West Indies, influenced Toussaint to actively support and participate in the slave revolution.

Eventually, L’Ouverture was legally freed in 1776, aged 33. During this time, Toussaint took up the name of Toussaint de Bréda (Toussaint of Bréda), or Toussaint Bréda, in reference to the plantation where he grew up. He soon married Suzanne Simone Baptiste and had three children: two sons, Toussaint Jr. and Gabrielle-Toussaint, and a daughter, Marie-Marthe.

During this period, Toussaint joined the local community known as gens de couleur libres (Free People of Color). The community primarily consisted of mixed-race individuals and freed slaves, most of them of African ancestry. The members felt a profound connection to the island itself, underlining their unique cultural identity and attachment to their community in Saint-Domingue.

Due to his improved social standing as a member of the gens de couleur libres, L’Ouverture aspired to achieve economic independence and, by renting a coffee plantation, became a plantation master himself. Toussant’s plantation had 13 slaves, one of them being Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who would later become one of L’Ouverture’s most loyal lieutenants and a member of his personal guard during the slave revolution.

Saint-Domingue, the French Caribbean colony, now Haiti, was located in the western region of the island of Hispaniola. Due to the easy access to the labor of enslaved people and suitable weather conditions, it became a valuable colony for France. Saint-Domingue was primarily used for sugarcane and coffee cultivation to accommodate Europe’s growing need for these products. By the 1760s, it had become the most profitable colony in the Americas. Profit, however, came at the expense of the exploitation of the African slaves, who represented the majority of Saint-Domingue’s population.

The Night of Fire

Enslaved people were subject to harsh and brutal regimes at the plantations. Years of submission and unpaid work pushed some to organize resistance groups, culminating in the massive revolt of August 22, 1791, also known as the “Night of Fire.” More than 100,000 slaves, under the leadership of a religious leader named Dutty Bookman, set fire to the plantation buildings and fields, executed French overlords and their family members, and forced many to escape. Saint-Domingue’s struggle for civil rights and emancipation began in flames.

The “Night of Fire” lasted for three weeks. Even though the French colonial authorities suppressed it, a faint spark of revolutionary fire still remained.

This remarkable event inspired L’Ouverture to join the revolution. However, he first relocated his family to the Spanish-controlled eastern half of the island (Santo Domingo) to ensure their safety. Even though Toussaint did not join the rebels in burning the plantations, he came to the realization that emancipation could only be achieved if the resistance would be militarily and politically well organized.

Other European colonial powers—Great Britain and Spain—saw the start of the Haitian Revolution and subsequent political instability as a possibility to gain dominance. France, on the other hand, sought to reclaim influence in the region.

The competition resulted in a military confrontation between France and Spain. Insurgency leader Georges Biassou decided to join the Spanish forces in 1793. Toussant also aligned himself with Spain as it supported the rebellion against French rule. It is thought that during this period, Toussant changed his name to “L’Ouverture” (French for “opening”) to refer to his skill in creating openings in enemy lines, outlining his exceptional capabilities as a military commander.

In 1794, to oppose the growing influence of British and Spanish forces in Saint-Domingue, France issued the French National Convention, also known as the Emancipation Decree. The convention granted citizenship rights and much-awaited freedom to all people of African-American roots under French colonial rule.

The convention also inspired Toussaint to shift his support from Spain to France. Already in May of the same year, Toussant was fighting on behalf of the French, becoming a leading political and military figure, and acting under the self-assumed title of General-in-Chief of the Army.

Toussaint immensely contributed to the French forces in opposing the British invasion of Saint-Domingue in September. His exceptional military capabilities proved instrumental in resisting the British forces.

The Treaty of Basel was signed in July 1795. The treaty ended the hostilities between the Spanish and French forces. Spain withdrew from Saint-Domingue and granted control to France over the eastern territories of Hispaniola (modern-day Dominican Republic). Even though Biassou, a former partner of Toussaint, continued to resist until November, he was eventually forced to flee for Spain as most of the soldiers had decided to join L’Ouverture.

Following the Treaty of Basel, Saint-Domingue became a predominantly French colony, where L’Ouverture wielded significant political and military influence.

L’Ouverture’s Saint-Domingue

In 1794, L’Ouverture drafted a constitution and named himself the governor of Saint-Domingue for “the rest of his glorious life.” During 1795-1796, he worked to establish peace and economic stability in Saint-Domingue, as he believed that long-term sovereignty, peace, and stability were only possible through a stable and growing economy. Even though coffee and sugar plantations remained a key source of income, workers of the plantations were adequately paid.

By February 1801, L’Ouverture had established an assembly to finalize the constitution of Saint-Domingue based on his vision. L’Ouverture signed the constitution in July 1801 and sent it to the leader of the French Republic, Napoleon Bonaparte, for ratification.

Article III of the document stated that the inhabitants of Saint-Domingue would henceforth be “free and French”—a brave statement that asserted both freedom from slavery and being nominally under French sovereignty.

Napoleon perceived the act as a direct threat to French influence in Saint-Domingue. In his memoirs, Napoleon pointed out: “Toussaint knew very well that in proclaiming his constitution, he had thrown away his mask and had drawn his sword out of its sheath forever.”

In 1802, Napoleon ordered an expedition to Saint-Domingue, headed by his brother-in-law, Charles Leclerc, to suppress L’Ouverture and reassert French control. Military involvement seemed the only viable solution to crush the initial steps towards Saint-Domingue’s independence.

Despite L’Ouverture’s initial resistance to the French forces, on June 7, 1802, he and his whole family were forcibly put onto a ship called Le Héros and deported to France.

L’Ouverture was placed at prison Fort de Joux in France, where he died of pneumonia on April 7, 1803, only eight months after his capture.

L’Ouverture’s death caused many controversies not only in the French public but on the international arena as well. The controversy was caused by the fact that the French government had not held a trial or filed formal charges against him. On May 3, a London newspaper wrote:

“Toussaint L’Ouverture is dead. He died, according to letters from Besançon, in prison a few days ago. The fate of this man has been singularly unfortunate, and his treatment is most cruel. He died, we believe, without a friend to close his eyes. We have never heard that his wife and children, though they were brought over from St. Domingo with him, have ever been permitted to see him during his imprisonment.”

Some believed that “Toussaint L’Ouverture’s lonely death in a French prison cell was not an unfortunate tragedy but a cruel story of betrayal,” as it illustrated the poor medical and living conditions of political prisoners of color. This perception was further reinforced by L’Ouverture’s written memoir, dated September 1802.

In the memoir, he declared: “Without a doubt, I owe this treatment to my color, but my color, my color, has it ever prevented me from serving my country with diligence and devotion?”

The death of the leader of the slave insurrection in French Saint-Domingue further fueled the struggle for independence. In 1804, under the leadership of Jean-Jacques Dessalines, one of L’Ouverture’s generals, Saint-Domingue was declared independent and emerged as the first slavery-free nation in the Americas.

Toussant’s constitution for Saint-Domingue served as a guide for the creation of multi-racial societies in post-colonial states. The history of Haiti’s struggle for independence and Toussaint L’Ouverture’s role in achieving it inspired other independence movements in Latin America and the Caribbean, illustrating that change was possible.