The Surprising Ways Tomb Robbing Changed the Course of Egyptian History

In ancient Egypt, the physical memory of the deceased was essential. They believed that another life would begin in the afterlife that was the same as life on Earth but without any problems. Their tombs were packed with objects necessary for survival in this afterlife. Importantly, remembrance of their legacy determined how long they lived after death. Tomb robbing was therefore sacrilegious. Despite the risk of irreparable punishment, tomb robbing has affected Egyptian history from ancient times until the present.

Tomb robbing not only affected the survival and ownership of Egyptian artifacts, it also has a rich history itself alongside the ancient building and modern discovery of tombs. It is practically unheard of for a tomb to be untouched by theft. The tomb of Tutankhamun, for example, is a famous tomb that still contained most of the artifacts that were originally buried there. Still, even Tutankhamun’s tomb was robbed at least once.

The requirement to be a tomb robber in ancient Egypt was more specialized than a simple thief. Determined robbers needed ample time to work on finding an entrance to the tomb, many of which were guarded at different points in time. The labor required specialized equipment to cut entrances through stone. For this reason, robbers worked in large groups and were sometimes even sanctioned by someone with the wealth or connections with the means to carry on the project. Generally, once a tomb could be accessed only a few items were taken out at once. Over many years, items slowly slipped away from the tomb in the hope they would be unnoticed by the protectors of the property or during sale.

To prevent elicit black market deals from surfacing the identity of the robbers, many gold objects were “laundered” by melting down the object for easier sale of the valuable material. By the time great modern archeological expeditions were launched to find these treasures in the 19th and 20th centuries, the tombs had been picked through. Many tombs were robbed hundreds of times before being reached by archeologists.

Right off the bat, the first tombs built in Predynastic Egypt were robbed for their treasures. Hence from the start when building tombs for the deceased Egyptians needed to use their construction to deter theft. This practice changed the course of Egyptian history by changing the way pyramids were built. For example, a common element in pyramids was trying to hide the entrance to the tomb. One way Egyptians did this was by creating an entrance to a false chamber that was unfinished and did not lead to the correct area inside the pyramid. Unlike the movie Indiana Jones, however, tombs did not use booby traps to prevent thieves.

Pyramids were constructed with anti-theft elements by placing large pieces of granite stone blocking the true entrance to the tomb. This was the case in the Great Pyramid of Giza built as the tomb for the pharaoh Khufu from the 4th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom. The granite stones made the thief’s job more difficult in theory because carving into the material would be a great effort. Unfortunately, this attempt to secure Khufu’s tomb was to no avail. The pyramid was built with workman shafts that were difficult to navigate but allowed the tomb to be robbed. Small objects were removed from the thin shafts until a new entrance was created to mine the tomb for larger artifacts of value. This tomb robbers entrance is the current entrance to the Great Pyramid of Giza used by visitors and archeologists today.

In some cases, the robbery of the burial chamber would occur soon after the tomb was sealed. Priests who performed the burial ceremonies would use their knowledge of its construction to rob the belongings of the deceased not long after they were laid to rest. Guards could be paid to look the other way by anyone with power. Even kings such as Menkaure, a pharaoh from the Old Kingdom, were recorded as allowing his soldiers to rob tombs as a reward. This point emphasizes how impossible it was to create a fool-proof system to prevent looting.

During intermediate periods, grave sites were not well-protected allowing easier access to chisel new entrances and take goods. But no matter the period, the potential for severe punishment loomed overhead. It was never an easy task from beginning to end. The steps undertaken involved not only those who entered and stole the artifacts but also the accomplices who set up and planned the operation. Corrupt officials would be bribed, blackmailed, or participate in extortion to earn part of the profit and look the other way. Once the objects were in possession, they were brought to criminals who ran fencing operations to sell the goods. Looting affected Egyptian history and was a part of its history.

Even Tutankhamun’s Tomb Was Robbed

When Tutankhamun’s tomb was discovered by Howard Carter in 1922, the rooms were astonishingly intact. The tomb was robbed only a few times and most of the artifacts remained. However, the tomb was still altered and precious items were removed that could have provided archeologists with more information about King Tutankhamun. The entrance to the tomb revealed to Carter that the structure had been entered after it was sealed. Although the tomb was found mostly intact, the items had been previously disturbed. For example, in the treasury room of the tomb, Carter found chests already opened and rifled through by thieves. The chariots discovered in the antechamber had been dismantled and other objects were piled up around the rooms.

It is a wonder how much more we would understand about Egypt’s past if the artifacts were not so often altered by theft. Most tombs were left rummaged through thanks to thousands of year’s worth of robberies. The tomb of Tutankhamun was a rare treasure.

There have been other discoveries of well-intact tombs, such as at the necropolis in Tanis discovered by Pierre Montet in 1939. Unfortunately, during the Second World War, news of the gold artifacts and relaxed war-time security at the site caused some looting after it was found. Tombs filled with priceless artifacts that can be sold on the black market never escape the fantasies of thieves.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Western world was overtaken by an obsession with “Egyptomania,” a fascination with Egyptian antiquities. Wealthy English travelers viewed Egyptian artifacts as curiosities during the Victorian Era. By the early 20th century, obsessions with the stylistic qualities of ancient Egypt spread to American culture. Surprisingly, several Egyptian artifacts that could have been more carefully discovered by archeologists were taken from tombs for visitors to bring home as souvenirs.

Explorers who documented their travels to Egypt invigorated their audience with an obsession with Egyptian style. Tours of Egypt for interested travelers became available so that people could see the pyramids and archeological sites in person. Mummified bodies in particular were intriguing to Victorian visitors. Taking pieces of a mummified body was illegal and immoral, but this did not stop everyone.

Travelers also desired amulets, scarabs, jewels, or any small objects they could bring home if provided an opportunity. As a result, grave robbing in modern times affected the way Egyptian artifacts were found and how they made their way to collections. Archeological sites visited by tourists during this era were not treated with the proper mindfulness for historical preservation.

Do Museums Possess Stolen Objects?

Global discussions over Egyptian artifacts held by museums outside of Egypt have initiated recent questions about what is considered “stolen.” The restitution of stolen art and artworks that have cultural significance to Egypt is a modern dilemma that causes a stir in the art community. Iconic Egyptian artifacts such as the Bust of Nefertiti (Neues Museum, Germany) have been demanded by Egypt, noting that they were originally stolen. In other cases, colonialism plays a part in restitution discussions because seeing artifacts as objects earned by conquest or war is becoming less accepted. The Rosetta Stone is another timeless artifact that has been requested. The British Museum does not want to relinquish the stone, which is a key artifact that attracts tourists, students, and prestige for the institution.

The distribution of precious Egyptian artifacts around the globe has been partly due to tomb robbing. Many stolen objects were funneled through the black market into prized collections. Privately and publicly displayed collections often contain artifacts that were not dug up by an archeological team. This widespread and long history of theft plays a role in how we interpret Egypt’s past. Since the artifacts in question are priceless and were buried for thousands of years, it is astonishing how many survived.