The Greek Civil War originated from an intense struggle for power between left- and right-wing resistance movements. Initially, they had the mutual aim of fighting the Nazi occupation of Greece during World War II. Following the Nazi withdrawal, the power struggle escalated into civil unrest. The United States and Great Britain supported the Greek government forces, while the Democratic Army of Greece, representing the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), was backed by the Soviet Union and its satellite countries, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Albania. Greece suffered huge casualties and economic setbacks during the civil war, leaving a lasting legacy on the socio-political climate of the country.
Origins of the Greek Civil War
From the beginning of the 20th century, the Greek state suffered through several violent wars and civil unrest. By the onset of WWII in 1939, Greece had already survived the Balkan Wars, a series of confrontations between the Balkan League—Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria—and the Ottoman Empire.
The objective of the first Balkan War, fought from 1912 to 1913, was to drive the Ottoman Empire out of the Greek-populated regions of Macedonia and Epirus. The war ended successfully; the league removed the Ottoman Empire from Europe. Nonetheless, the power struggle among the Balkan League members catalyzed the Second Balkan War in 1913. Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania fought against Bulgaria.
The war ended with the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913, which gave Greece control over key European areas, particularly Macedonia.
Internally, Greece endured a series of disagreements between King Constantine I and Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, also known as the National Schism. The disagreement was primarily sparked by diverging foreign policy orientations and Greek territorial ambitions following the Balkan Wars.
Venizelos supported Greek involvement in WWI on the Allies’ side, while the king envisaged staying neutral. In June 1917, Venizelos established a provisional government in Thessaloniki in opposition to King Constantine I’s official government in Athens. The Thessaloniki Government declared Greece’s alignment with the Allies and entered WWI the same year.
The Schism divided Greeks into two radically opposed political camps, questioned the credibility of the monarchy, and contributed to the polarization of Greek society.
Following the end of World War I, the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 once again shook the region. Driven by the Megali Idea—an aspiration to incorporate regions with substantial Greek populations—Greece embarked on conquering Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). This led to a military confrontation with Turkish resistance headed by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The Treaty of Lausanne, signed on July 24, 1923, officially ended the Greco-Turkish War and compelled Greece to renounce its claims to Eastern Thrace, the islands of Imbros and Tenedos, and Smyrna (modern-day Izmir).
All of these turbulences contributed to socio-political instability within Greece. In the broader context of European polarization and the rise of Nazi and fascist political ideologies in the 1930s, Greece once again found itself amid a political-military confrontation.
The Italian Invasion & Nazi Occupation of Greece
Greek Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas saw the formation of the German-Italian Axis as a prerequisite to an invasion of Greece. He started preparations as early as 1936. Besides military advancements, the Balkan Entente was formed as a mutual defense agreement between Greece, Turkey, Romania, and Yugoslavia against attack by another Balkan state, namely Bulgaria or Albania.
The prime minister also outlined that if Italy invaded Greece, he would seek alliances with Britain and France. When Mussolini occupied Albania in April 1939, the Italian invasion of Greece became a reality. In response, on April 13, 1939, France and Great Britain declared their support for Greek territorial integrity and sovereignty.
On October 18, 1940, Italy presented an ultimatum to Greece, demanding that Italian forces occupy strategic Greek territories. The ultimatum, however, did not specify the exact strategic locations Mussolini demanded. Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas refused the ultimatum with the following words: “Alors, c’est la guerre” in French, translated as “Well, it is war.” The same day, Italian forces attacked northwest Greece from the Albanian border.
The Greeks mounted a strong resistance, utilizing almost all available resources. Their efforts were praised internationally. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill remarked, “Hence we will not say that Greeks fight like heroes, but that heroes fight like Greeks.”
To Hitler’s disappointment, Mussolini lost the fight against the Greeks. Nazi Germany then launched Operation Marita, the Nazi occupation of Greece, in April 1941, with the assistance of its allies Italy, Bulgaria, and Hungary. On June 1, 1941, Greece fell under Nazi control.
Nevertheless, according to different assessments, Operation Marita delayed the implementation of Operation Barbarossa, the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. Hitler’s Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel said, “The unbelievable strong resistance of the Greeks delayed by two or more vital months the German attack against Russia; if we did not have this long delay, the outcome of the war would have been different.”
Prime Minister Metaxas died in January 1941. King George appointed Alexandros Koryzis, who, just a month after the Nazi invasion, committed suicide. Emmanouil Tsouderos succeeded Koryzis but was forced to flee Greece with the rest of the government to Egypt, forming a government in exile there. In Greece, the Nazi government established a collaborationist cabinet supervised by the Axis countries.
The Emergence of Resistance Movements
The Nazi occupation of Greece during 1941–1944 caused devastating results for Greece. Nearly 100,000 people fell victim to starvation, causing civil unrest in the Greek population. By 1942, resistance movements against occupying German, Italian, and Bulgarian troops were gaining momentum.
Initially, the resistance was located in eastern Macedonia and Thrace. Two groups emerged as leading organizations: one was the National Liberation Front (EAM), which represented a coalition of leftists and republicans and was run by the Communist Party of Greece (KKE). It was founded on September 27, 1941. The military guerilla unit of the EAM was called the National Liberation Army (ELAS), founded in February 1942.
The second organization was the National Republican Greek League (EDES). EDES was founded on Greek nationalism and patriotism. Aiming to safeguard Greek sovereignty, it advocated for democratic governance free of authoritarian and totalitarian regimes.
Despite their ideological and political divergences, they had a common goal: to fight the occupation. Greece’s favorable landscape for guerilla attacks contributed to the successful resistance. By 1943, Axis forces were only in control of the major cities and roads, as they were forced to leave the mountains and countryside behind.
The EAM managed to acquire considerable support and loyalty within the Greek population. Historical sources vary, but it has been claimed that the movement enrolled up to two million members—almost 30% of the population. The reason behind EAM’s success can be found in its nationwide campaigns to galvanize public support, especially as it promised wide-reaching social and economic reforms. The activities included developing and sharing political programs, establishing subsidiary organizations, and campaigning to enlist more members.
By 1943, the rising influence of the EAM was threatening the collaborationist government. To counterbalance the polarizing political environment, the collaborationist Prime Minister Ioannis Rallis established paramilitary governmental forces, widely referred to as the Security Battalions. These forces were composed of fascists, prisoners of war, or forcibly-conscripted individuals and were under direct German command.
Greece as the British Zone of Influence & The Dekemvriana Events
By 1943, EAM rhetoric had become extremely radical. It demanded the separation of the state and the Greek Orthodox Church, the extermination of all “fascist sympathizers,” and the introduction of a Soviet-style regime.
EAM emerged as a dominant force within the resistance movement. It caused concern among other factions that perceived the growing influence of EAM and its ideological radicalization comparable to the Nazi occupation of Greece. This led to violent confrontations and provoked widespread public polarization.
Greece was devastated. Seven percent of the population had become victims of famine. On October 12, 1944, Nazi Germany withdrew from Athens. ELAS had, however, stationed some 50,000 armed members outside Athens.
The growing influence of communists in Greece threatened British interests in the region. Aiming to secure the “traditionally British area” of the Mediterranean and the Middle East, Greece was considered under the zone of British influence during World War II.
In May 1944, ELAS and EAM members agreed to the arrival of British troops and to place their men under the commanding officer, Lt Gen Ronald Scobie. ELAS pledged to distance its military forces from the capital city of Athens. A new coalition government formed, including EAM’s participation, as members of the group became ministers in the new government.
On December 1, 1944, Ronald Scobie issued a declaration demanding that ELAS leaders disarm and ultimately dissolve EAM. Prime Minister Georgios Papandreou approved the decision. This event catalyzed political instability as KKE decided to resist.
Left-wing cabinet ministers resigned, causing the collapse of the coalition government. Even though the government prohibited resistance, leftists organized mass protests, a general strike, and demonstrations on December 3, 1944.
The Battle of Athens on December 3 is regarded as one of the key events leading to the Greek Civil War. The Greek and British police shot unarmed protesters in Syntagma Square. The event resulted in the deaths of 28 demonstrators and the injuries of 148.
December 3 marked the onset of the Dekemvriana, widely referred to as the December events. Dekemvriana lasted for 37 days and was characterized by violent clashes in Athens between EAM/ELAS members, the British army, and the governmental forces. Despite the initial success of EAM/ELAS, by the beginning of January 1945, the resistance was defeated due to a lack of resources and external support from the Soviet Union.
On January 15, 1945, a cease-fire agreement was reached. Papandreou resigned. Lieutenant General Nikolaos Plastiras succeeded him. The Peace Treaty of Varkiza was signed on February 12 between the Greek Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Secretary of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) for EAM-ELAS. According to the treaty, ELAS forces were disarmed in exchange for the pledge that EAM-ELAS would be permitted in the political establishment of Greece.
The Greek Civil War: 1946–1949
The Greek government and EAM-ELAS did not fully adhere to the signed peace treaty. The government launched extensive terror campaigns against the resistance members, including the persecution of left-wing citizens, communists, and officials of EAM.
On the other hand, EAM-ELAS did not demilitarize completely. The EAM conducted its political operations covertly, while ELAS was compelled to retreat into the remote villages and rural regions and resume partisan warfare.
In December 1946, ELAS was renamed the Greek Democratic Army (DSE). The KKE took complete control of the DSE. By this time, Albania, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia had already fallen under Soviet influence. DSE members were supported by these new communist regimes. Yugoslavia’s Marshal Tito provided the DSE with military equipment, including rifles, machine guns, anti-tank weapons, and anti-aircraft weapons.
The attacks escalated in March 1946 when guerillas organized an attack on a police station in the remote area of Litochoro, killing several officers stationed there. A series of successful attacks on different strategic objects in Greek villages followed.
Great Britain declared its withdrawal from Greece in February 1947. The decision was prompted by economic constraints and the initiation of the Truman Doctrine, in which the United States assumed responsibility for deterring the spread of communism. By this time, the United States had already allocated American instructors and military equipment to the Greek government, which changed the dynamics of the Greek Civil War.
By 1948, the DSE was outnumbered both in manpower and military equipment. DSE’s III Brigade was lost in the summer of 1948, and the Hellenic Army acquired control of the Peloponnese. The partisan army also failed to take over the towns of Konitsa and Floria in northern Greece. Deprived of a huge area of economic and political control, the DSE gradually lost support, marking the start of the end of the Greek Civil War.
The turning point during the civil war was the battle of Grammos, which lasted from June 16 to August 21, 1948. The battle is also known as Operation Koronis. The DSE lost the battle and was forced to retreat to the Albanian border. Facing internal challenges, both militarily and politically, the DSE was doomed to fail.
In August 1949, General Alexander Papagos’s appointment as commander of the National Army proved successful. He launched Operation Torch, a counteroffensive in Northern Greece that became the final step in defeating the DSE. The National Army defeated DSE partisans at the Grammos-Vitsi front, forcing them to retreat to Albania.
The United Nations, with the diplomatic assistance of British and American politicians, facilitated a ceasefire. On October 16, 1949, the leader of the KKE, Nikolaos Zachariadis, declared through its “Free Greek” radio that his forces had temporarily ceased fighting to avoid “the complete annihilation” of Greece, marking the end of the Greek Civil War.
The Legacy of the Greek Civil War
The Greek Civil War resulted in a massive death toll. Many EDES/ELAS members and its sympathizers had been imprisoned, while others, including those with leftist political leanings, had been tortured and exiled to the infamous islands of Makronissos and Gyaros, persecuted, or placed under intense surveillance long after the conflict had ended.
War-torn Greece was economically devastated; however, the United States-initiated Marshall Plan assisted the country in socio-economic recovery and reconstruction.
Internationally, the Greek Civil War was perceived as the first proxy war of the Cold War. Western countries’ victory ultimately led to Greece’s membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1952.
Internally, even though parliamentary democracy was established in Greece, the civil war and subsequent socio-political division left a deep scar on Greece’s political environment, leading to political polarization and the Greek military junta of 1967–1974. A strong anti-communist regime was established during this period, also known as the Regime of the Colonels.
Even in the 21st century, the shadows of the civil war are seen in the political identity of leftist ideology, which was, to some extent, barred from Greece’s sociopolitical environment.
