Rome’s Greatest Rival: What Was The Parthian Empire?

The Parthians, a major Iranian political and military power, emerged as a significant force in 247 BCE. After defeating the Seleucids, they built a mighty empire. At its height, the Parthian Arsacid dynasty ruled over a vast territory stretching from the Euphrates to the Himalayas. The control of the Silk Road made the Parthians immensely wealthy, allowing their rulers to revive the greatness of the Achaemenid Empire and emulate its multiculturalism.

The enormous wealth funded a state-of-the-art army, renowned for its mounted archers and heavy cavalry. No wonder the Parthian Empire quickly turned into a superpower, the only ancient state that could rival Rome. Then, in a unique twist, this powerful and wealthy empire, an insurmountable obstacle for the Roman legions, was almost completely erased from history by the emerging Sassanian Empire.

The story of the Parthian Empire began in 247 BCE, when Arsaces I, ruler of the small nomadic group called the Parni, invaded the Seleucid Empire. Exploiting the revolt of the local governor, Arsaces conquered the region of Parthia, which became a core region of the new Parthian Empire. The Arsacid rulers exploited the ongoing Seleucid conflict with Ptolemaic Egypt, pushing towards both east and west. The war with the Seleucids continued for several decades as the Parthian rulers successfully expanded their territory from the Euphrates to Bactria, from India to Central Asia, to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. 

By the mid-second century BCE, the Parthians controlled all the core territories of the old Achaemenid Empire, including the fertile plains of Mesopotamia. There, King Mithridates I established Ctesiphon, a major royal residence, which in the following decades became the capital of the mighty Parthian Empire. The Pathian rulers adopted the title shahanshah or “King of Kings,” emphasizing their connection with the Achaemenid legacy. 

Parthia Was Famous for Its Military, Culture and Trade

The optimal position at the crossroads between China, India, and the Eastern Mediterranean, made the Parthian Empire a dominant power in the Near East. This was largely due to the Parthian control of the Silk Road. The key role in ancient trade boosted the Parthian economy and allowed for cultural exchanges, creating a vibrant, multicultural, and wealthy society. The Parthians also developed elaborate and distinctive style in art and architecture, blending Hellenistic, Persian, and local elements. 

The ruling dynasty – the Arsacids – reflected the inclusivity of their empire, initially adopting Greek as an official language, supplanting it with Parthian only after the outbreak of hostilities with the Romans. Parthia could rival Rome for centuries, partly due to its immense wealth, and partly due to its powerful military, famous for its mounted warriors and “Parthian shot,” a tactic later emulated by their successors, the Sassanids, but also other nomads of the Eurasian steppe, including the Huns, Scythians, Mongols and Magyars. 

For centuries, the Parthian Empire played a pivotal role in the development of the Silk Road trade, serving as a central hub between East and West. The Parthians controlled key segments of this ancient trade network, facilitating the exchange of silk, spices, and precious gems, which in turn boosted the Empire’s economy. The exchange of luxury goods was complemented by the flow of religious and philosophical ideas, including Buddhism, which influenced Parthian culture – Indian art and iconography blended with Parthian and Hellenistic traditions, creating a unique cultural synthesis.

Parthians facilitated commerce and cultural exchanges between major ancient empires, China and India in the East and Rome in the West. However, the Parthian political and military might have prevented the Romans from establishing closer connections with the oriental empires, most notably China. To break the Parthian Silk Road monopoly, the Romans kickstarted the Indian Ocean trade, using the Egyptian Red Sea ports as a starting point for a lucrative maritime trade. Yet, Rome and China never managed to establish a direct relationship. 

Parthia and Rome Were the Greatest Rivals

The first encounter between Rome and the Parthian Empire occurred in the early first century BCE, during the Roman war against the Pontic king, Mithritades VI Eupator. In 92 BCE, Rome and Parthia made a diplomatic agreement, recognizing the Euphrates as a boundary between the two states. The fragile peace was shattered in 54 BCE, when the Roman legions, led by Marcus Licinius Crassus, invaded Mesopotamia. Unfortunately for the Romans, Parthia proved to be a formidable opponent, and they suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BCE. The devastating “Parthian shot,” a hit-and-run tactic executed by mounted archers, and their powerful cataphract cavalry charge posed significant challenges for the Roman forces.

Crassus, too, perished in the battle, becoming first of many Roman leaders who would meet their end in the East rather than achieve military glory. While the Romans managed to score some successes, most notably under Augustus and Trajan, Parthia remained Rome’s greatest rival until its very end in the early third century. 

While Rome and Parthia waged wars, they also exchanged embassies, conducted trade, and even formed temporary alliances, demonstrating mutual recognition of each other’s power. This uneasy existence lasted until the early third century, when the Parthians, weakened by internal strife and wars with Romans, fell to a new power. In 224 CE, Ardashir I successfully rebelled against the Parthian ruler, Artabanus IV, leading to the downfall of Parthia and the rise of the Sasanian Empire. 

Unlike the Parthians, the Sassanians maintained constant hostilities with the Roman Empire. During the so-called Crisis of the Third Century, the Parthians scored a major victory when they defeated the Roman army at the battle of Edessa, capturing emperor Valerian alive. The warfare in the East continued for four hundred years, with both rivals scoring victories and defeats, until in the early seventh century, when Rome and Persia engaged in a war to death – the “Last Great War of Antiquity.”

In the end, the Romans would emerge triumphant, only to be forced to fight a new emerging power – the Arabs – for their very survival, while the Sassanids would be erased from the map, as the last major Iranian ancient power.