Ma’at was a fundamental concept in ancient Egyptian society. It can be understood as “the rightness of things” and was a mixture of order, harmony, and justice. As with many important concepts in the Egyptian world, Ma’at was considered to be a divine force fundamental within existence and was personified as the goddess Ma’at. Ma’at emerged during creation and can be felt everywhere in the order and systems that govern all aspects of life. But how did Ma’at manifest in Egyptian mythology, beliefs, and daily practices?
The Concept of Ma’at
The notion of Ma’at was central to the ancient Egyptian universe. Ma’at was the concept of “rightness” or “correctness” that was a combination of the ideas of truth, balance, order, harmony, law, morality, and justice. That order and rightness existed in the universe was evident in the predictable movement of the stars, flooding of the Nile, crop cycles, and the rising and setting of the sun each day. Ma’at encompassed that natural order.
The Egyptians believed that they needed to live in accordance with cosmic balance. This gave them a strong moral compass. A common belief was that the good would thrive in the afterlife while the wicked would face retribution in the underworld. Those who had lived their lives in accordance with Ma’at would make it to the “Field of Reeds” and live in an eternal paradise alongside the gods. Those who did not would have their hearts eaten by the monster Ammut and cease to exist for all eternity.
The conflict between order and chaos was a primary source of contention in the ancient Egyptian world. According to one Egyptian creation myth, the world was created from the dark bottomless waters of chaos that were personified by the primordial god Nu or Nun. Atum-Ra ascended out of these waters and gave birth to Shu and Tefnut (air and moisture), who then gave rise to Geb (earth) and Nut (sky). It is from Geb and Nut’s union that the famous deities Osiris, Isis, Set, and Nephthys were born. Through these acts of creation, Ma’at was also created.
But chaos still lurked around the edges of existence. Each night, the god Ra is attacked by Apophis, a serpent god representing chaos and disorder. Each night, Ra, with the assistance of the other gods, must defeat Apophis to ensure that Ma’at continues.
The cycle of pharaohs and line of succession also represented the idea of Ma’at, as their unending line symbolized the stability and rightness of the state. Pharaohs were the chosen intermediaries between men and gods and were empowered by the gods to rule. The very existence of the pharaoh represented Ma’at, and they were responsible for protecting Ma’at in the mortal world.
Ma’at and the Duty of the Pharaohs
As mediators between the celestial and human domains, the pharaohs played an integral part in the establishment and continuation of order. The position of the pharaoh consisted of being the political and religious leader of Egypt. They defended Ma’at in the face of adversity, whether that be politically and militarily from foreign powers, or ritually against supernatural entities such as Apophis. The pharaoh Sneferu, the first king of the Fourth Dynasty (c. 2613 – 2494 BCE), added “Possessor of Ma’at” or “Lord of Ma’at” to his titulary, and the same titles were adopted by many later pharaohs.
The importance of conserving Ma’at was particularly evident when a pharaoh died because it presented a clear opportunity for chaos to thrive through power struggles. The next ruler had to ascend quickly and decisively to ensure the continuation of Ma’at.
Egyptian temples embodied the conflict between Ma’at and chaos. They helped preserve Ma’at through their physical presence by acting as permanent structures to house the gods, effectively announcing their existence in the area and thereby warding off the forces of disorder.
When the pharaoh went to war on earth, it was seen to mimic the war waged by the gods against chaos. The pharaoh was said to be re-enacting the essential work of the god Ra, who went to war against Apophis to secure Ma’at. Invaders, as well as internal rebels, ultimately embodied disorder and had to be swiftly dealt with.
This concept was illustrated within temple art and commemorative inscriptions. Many temples contain vast numbers of stelae depicting the pharaoh and his armies at war, representing the constant war against chaos. At the Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu, Ramesses is clearly shown as much larger than both his army and the army of the enemy. This reflects his connection to the gods and his divine responsibilities.
The rituals performed within temples were also crucial in maintaining Ma’at. The “Banishing of the Chaos” was an annual ceremony conducted by priests. They would create a large effigy of the serpent Apophis and burn it to keep disorder away for another year. Smaller rituals were also performed where small wax statuettes of Apophis were produced and then destroyed through various methods, from being stomped on to being urinated on. In this rite, Apophis represented human enemies, usually foreign enemies, and the ritual was used as a curse. Similarly, in the cult of Ra, hymns or spells were sung each hour to honor the god’s journey across the sky. Each hour he would battle different forces of chaos, notably Apophis in the tenth hour of the night.
The Goddess Ma’at
The power of Ma’at was personified as a deity, a goddess with the same name. She was typically depicted as a young woman with an ostrich feather headdress, sometimes with wings, and on occasion, she is represented by the ostrich feather alone. She first appears in this likeness in the middle of the Old Kingdom, despite the idea of Ma’at existing earlier than this.
Little is known about the goddess. It seems to many historians that the concept of Ma’at was so all-encompassing that it was unnecessary for the ancient Egyptians to explain her theological components. Indeed, she was in no specific place and in all places. No individual temple was dedicated to Ma’at until the New Kingdom. However, most, if not all, temples contained one section dedicated to Ma’at, called the “Hall of Two Truths” or “Hall of Ma’at.”
The only known temple devoted exclusively to Ma’at was built at Karnak by the pharaoh Hatshepsut, whose throne name was Ma’atkare (justice is the soul of Re). Scholars believe the female pharaoh heavily associated herself with Ma’at as part of her efforts to validate her position as a woman in power.
The goddess Ma’at’s mythological origins describe her as emerging from the waters of Nu with Ra, making her his daughter. Thoth is often recorded as her husband and they are usually depicted together in the “Book of the Dead.”
Ma’at as a goddess is a famous image in ancient Egyptian art. Small bronze figures have been found across Egypt, and many of these effigies depict an individual, usually a priest or even a pharaoh, holding a bust of Ma’at, likely as an offering. She is frequently found on temple walls and above entrances within funerary complexes with outstretched wings. She appears above the entrance to the burial chamber of Nefertari, the Great Wife of Ramesses II.
The Weighing of the Heart
Ma’at is perhaps best known today as a combination of the goddess and the concept in the “Weighing of the Heart Ceremony.” When an individual passed away and the relevant funeral rites had been performed, Anubis was said to appear to the deceased and lead them into the Duat or underworld. Once there, the souls of the deceased would wait in line for their hearts to be weighed in the “Hall of Two Truths” or the “Hall of Ma’at” by a plethora of deities.
The ceremony begins with the deceased reciting the 42 sins, often named the “Ideals of Ma’at” or the “Negative Confessions.” The individual denies committing wrongdoings during their lifetime, and by doing so, declares they have lived in accordance with Ma’at. Examples include: “I have not worked witchcraft against the king,” “I have not committed adultery,” and “I have not been an eavesdropper.” Most of the 42 ideals of Ma’at were understood to be within reason, for instance, “I have made none weep… without good cause.”
After the recital, the Ab or supernatural manifestation of the heart was weighed on the “Scales of Justice” against Ma’at’s white feather. The feather represented all concepts associated with Ma’at, namely order, truth, and what is right. If the person had lived following the notions of Ma’at, the heart would weigh equal to the feather and they would move on to the eternal afterlife, the A’aru or “Field of Reeds.”
Sins were thought to leave marks on the heart and weigh it down. Therefore, if someone had not lived a virtuous life, the heart would be heavier than the feather. In that case, the heart would be thrown to the floor and eaten by Ammut, a supernatural creature with the head of a crocodile, the forequarters of a lion, and the hindquarters of a hippopotamus. They would exist no more, which was considered the worst fate of the ancient Egyptians.
Ma’at, the goddess, was present in the “Hall of Two Truths,” as were Osiris, Thoth, Anubis, and a host of other supernatural entities, making up a congregation of 42 judges. Each was associated with an individual sin.
This is the most familiar representation of ancient Egyptian Ma’at known today, but Ma’at was so much more than just a moral weight. Ma’at was part of the fabric of the universe, and life, as the ancient Egyptians knew it, depended on gods and men working together to defend Ma’at.
