Merlin is one of the most famous figures from the Arthurian legends. He is the infamous wizard who served and guided King Arthur throughout his reign. In some versions of the tale, he was entrusted with raising Arthur as a youth. In reality, the development of this legendary figure was complex. The primary reason for this is that Merlin was originally two separate figures who were conflated as the legend evolved. What do the original sources actually say about Merlin, and how was the Merlin we know today created?
Earliest References to Merlin in Welsh Tradition
Like with many of the Arthurian characters, the earliest traces of Merlin can be found in Welsh tradition. It appears that the very earliest reference to him comes from a poem known as Armes Prydein, written in c. 930. One obscure line mentions him as being the one who prophetically declared the stanza in which the line appears. In this line, his name is spelled “Myrdin.”
A possible earlier reference appears in the poem Y Goddodin. Although the original version of this poem may well date back to c. 600, more than one version of this poem exists, and Merlin is only mentioned in one of them. The orthography “Mirdin” suggests that it might predate the reference in Armes Prydein, although we cannot state this with certainty. In any case, based on Armes Prydein, we can see that Merlin appears as early as the 10th century as a type of prophet.
However, Welsh references to Merlin are not limited to these obscure mentions. This character, known to the Welsh as Myrddin, appears in various later medieval poems. For example, one of these is the Cyfoesi Myrddin a Gwenddydd ei Chwaer. This is in the form of a dialogue between Myrddin and his sister Gwenddydd. A similar poem presents a dialogue between Myrddin and Taliesin, another bard often presented with prophetic abilities like Myrddin. From these and other poems, which often refer to Myrddin’s background, we can reconstruct a basic profile of this character as the medieval Welsh understood him.
He was believed to have come from Dyfed, South Wales. He then became a warrior in the north of Britain and participated in the Battle of Arderydd in the service of King Gwenddoleu. This king then died in the battle, causing Myrddin to go mad and flee to the Celidon Wood in southern Scotland. He lived there as a wild man for many years, under threat from King Rhydderch Hael of Alclud.
How Myrddin Became Merlin
The character of Merlin is not primarily known from the world from Welsh texts. Rather, he is known primarily from the Latin, French, and English texts written in the Middle Ages, culminating in Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur. The first text that introduced Merlin to the world outside of Celtic-speaking areas was Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae, written in c. 1137. Geoffrey took the character of Myrddin and presented him in his Latin text as “Merlinus.” It is widely believed that he altered the name in this way because “Myrddin” would have seemed like an offensive word to his readers. Hence, Myrddin became Merlin.
In the Historia Regum Britanniae, Geoffrey provides only a very brief reference to Merlin as prophesying to Arthur. This is mentioned near the very end of the book in a retrospective mention of Arthur, long after the end of his reign in the narrative. For this reason, it is easy to miss.
Years later, in c. 1150, Geoffrey wrote an account called Vita Merlini, or the Life of Merlin. This is a full account of Merlin’s life. It is based directly on the Welsh traditions of Myrddin’s career. As we saw earlier, Welsh poetry hints at Myrddin’s origin in Dyfed, South Wales. In line with this, Geoffrey’s account presents Merlin originally being a king in South Wales. Later, he is said to have participated in the Battle of Arderydd in support of King Gwenddoleu. However, before this battle, Geoffrey presents Merlin as accompanying Taliesin on the voyage to Avalon, where Arthur was taken after being severely wounded at the Battle of Camlann.
Hence, this reinforced the association between Arthur and Merlin, briefly referred to at the end of Geoffrey’s earlier work. The very notion that Merlin was a king of South Wales lends itself to this connection since Geoffrey himself placed Arthur’s capital at Caerleon in southeast Wales.
The Earlier Merlin
While the situation may seem fairly straightforward so far, it is more complicated than this. After all, Merlin accompanying Arthur on his journey to Avalon is placed near the beginning of his career. This would make Merlin a much younger contemporary of Arthur. Yet, Merlin is traditionally presented as being much older than the king. How did this tradition emerge?
Crucially, in the Historia Regum Britanniae, Geoffrey had also presented Merlin as a character in the time of Vortigern and Ambrosius, long before Arthur was even born. In fact, the Merlin of this era appears to have been Ambrosius himself, although accidentally split into a separate figure. In the Historia Brittonum, written in c. 830, there is a legend of a young boy and his conflict with Vortigern. This boy is Ambrosius, a legendary version of the historical war leader Ambrosius Aurelianus. Geoffrey describes the same legend but calls this figure Ambrosius Merlinus and makes him a separate character from Ambrosius the war leader.
How the Two Figures Were Combined
It is obvious that Myrddin, the prophet of Welsh tradition, was not Ambrosius Aurelianus. As we have seen, the evidence from Welsh tradition clearly places Myrddin in the 6th century. For one thing, he fought in the Battle of Arderydd in 573, fairly early in his career. He lived in the Celidon Wood in fear of Rhydderch Hael, a late-6th or early-7th century king. There is no doubt that Myrddin historically had nothing to do with Ambrosius Aurelianus, whom Bede placed in the last quarter of the 5th century.
Nevertheless, for whatever reason, Geoffrey gave this figure the additional name “Merlinus” and made him distinct from the war leader. It has been suggested that Geoffrey believed that this figure should be associated with the Welsh name “Myrddin” because the story of the young boy was set in Caerfyrddin. This place name could be falsely understood to mean “Fortress of Myrddin.” Whether this is really the explanation or not, several comments made in the Life of Merlin show that Geoffrey believed that both Myrddins, or Merlins, were the same person.
Merlin in the Later Legends
Based on this case of mistaken identity, the character Merlin, as we know him today, emerged. Merlin was held to have been young at the time of Vortigern’s reign, meaning that he must have been very old by the time of Arthur’s reign. Hence, he was portrayed as an elderly sage in Arthur’s kingdom in the subsequent versions of the Arthurian legends.
However, the figure continued to evolve from there. In Robert de Boron’s version of Arthurian legend, Merlin is responsible for creating the Round Table and the order of the knights. He also took Arthur away as a child. Merlin subsequently orchestrated the events of the Sword in the Stone to ensure that Arthur would become king. In subsequent versions based on this, Merlin plays a prominent role in Arthur’s kingdom. For example, he is presented as supporting Arthur through the use of his magic, such as during his battles against his enemies.
What We Know About Merlin, King Arthur’s Wizard
In conclusion, the figure of Merlin can be traced back to some of the earliest sources from medieval Welsh tradition. The very earliest mention of him is likely the reference in the poem Armes Prydein, dating to c. 930. Here, he is already a prophet. Welsh tradition shows that Myrddin was held to have been from Dyfed, South Wales, although he later became a warrior who fought at the Battle of Arderydd in 573. After his patron lost the battle, he went mad and lived as a wild man in the Celidon Wood. This figure is first associated with King Arthur by Geoffrey of Monmouth, who altered his name to Merlinus.
However, Geoffrey complicated things immensely by also giving this same name to a legendary version of the historical Ambrosius Aurelianus. Hence, Merlin was believed to have been alive and active for most of the 5th century. This resulted in him being viewed as old during Arthur’s reign, leading to the traditional view of him as an elderly wise man and wizard who assisted the much younger King Arthur.
